SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<title>Animation</title>

</head>

Animation

</h1>

</header>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Animate" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="Animate_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Animate (disambiguation)">Animate (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="Animation_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Animation (disambiguation)">Animation (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"></div><div class="thumbcaption">2D computer animation moving at 10 <a href="Frames_per_second" class="mw-redirect" title="Frames per second">frames per second</a> (FPS)</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"></div><div class="thumbcaption">The animation above consists of these six frames repeated indefinitely (This makes it a <a href="Stop_motion" title="Stop motion">stop motion</a> animation.)</div></div></div></div></div>

Animation is a <a href="Filmmaking" title="Filmmaking">filmmaking</a> technique whereby <a href="Image" title="Image">still images</a> are manipulated to create <a href="Motion_picture" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion picture">moving images</a>. In <a href="Traditional_animation" title="Traditional animation">traditional animation</a>, images are drawn or painted by hand on <a href="Cel" title="Cel">transparent celluloid sheets</a> to be <a href="Photograph" title="Photograph">photographed</a> and exhibited on <a href="Film" title="Film">film</a>. Animation has been recognized as an artistic medium, specifically within the <a href="Entertainment#Industry" title="Entertainment">entertainment industry</a>. Many animations are either traditional animations or <a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">computer animations</a> made with <a href="Computer-generated_imagery" title="Computer-generated imagery">computer-generated imagery</a> (CGI). <a href="Stop_motion_animation" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop motion animation">Stop motion animation</a>, in particular <a href="Claymation" title="Claymation">claymation</a>, has continued to exist alongside these other forms.

Animation is contrasted with <a href="Live_action" title="Live action">live action</a>, although the two do not exist in isolation. Many moviemakers have produced <a href="Live-action_animation" title="Live-action animation">films that are a hybrid of the two</a>. As CGI increasingly <a href="Photorealism" title="Photorealism">approximates photographic imagery</a>, filmmakers can easily <a href="Compositing" title="Compositing">composite</a> 3D animations into their film rather than using <a href="Practical_effect" title="Practical effect">practical effects</a> for showy <a href="Visual_effects" title="Visual effects">visual effects</a> (VFX).

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc"></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_overview">General overview</h2></div>

<a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Computer animation</a> can be very detailed <a href="Computer_animation#Animation_methods" title="Computer animation">3D animation</a>, while 2D computer animation (which may have the look of traditional animation) can be used for stylistic reasons, low bandwidth, or faster <a href="Real-time_rendering" class="mw-redirect" title="Real-time rendering">real-time renderings</a>. Other common animation methods apply a <a href="Stop_motion" title="Stop motion">stop motion</a> technique to two- and three-dimensional objects like <a href="Cutout_animation" title="Cutout animation">paper cutouts</a>, <a href="Puppet" title="Puppet">puppets</a>, or <a href="Claymation" title="Claymation">clay figures</a>.

An animated cartoon, or simply a cartoon, is an animated film, usually short, that features an exaggerated visual style. This style is often inspired by comic strips, gag cartoons, and other non-animated art forms. Cartoons frequently include anthropomorphic animals, <a href="Superheroes" class="mw-redirect" title="Superheroes">superheroes</a>, or the adventures of human protagonists. The action often revolves around exaggerated <a href="Cartoon_violence" title="Cartoon violence">physical humor</a>, particularly in predator/prey dynamics (e.g. cats and mices, coyotes and birds), where violent pratfalls such as falls, collisions, and explosions occur, often in ways that would be lethal in the real life.

During in the late 1980s, the term "cartoon" was shortened to toon, referring to characters in animated productions, or more specifically, cartoonishly-drawn characters. This term gained popularity first in 1988 with the live-action/animated hybrid film <a href="Who_Framed_Roger_Rabbit" title="Who Framed Roger Rabbit">Who Framed Roger Rabbit</a>, which introduced ToonTown, a world inhabited by various animated cartoon characters. In 1990, <a href="Tiny_Toon_Adventures" title="Tiny Toon Adventures">Tiny Toon Adventures</a> embraced the classic cartoon spirit, introducing a new generation of cartoon characters. Then, in 1993, <a href="Animaniacs" title="Animaniacs">Animaniacs</a> followed, featuring the three <a href="Rubber_hose_animation" title="Rubber hose animation">rubber-hose</a>-styled Warner siblings, Yakko Warner, Wakko Warner, and Dot Warner, who are trapped in the 1930s, eventually escaped and found themselves in the <a href="Warner_Bros._Water_Tower" title="Warner Bros. Water Tower">Warner Bros. water tower</a> in the 1990s.

The illusion of animation—as in motion pictures in general—has traditionally been attributed to the <a href="Persistence_of_vision" title="Persistence of vision">persistence of vision</a> and later to the <a href="Phi_phenomenon" title="Phi phenomenon">phi phenomenon</a> and <a href="Beta_movement" title="Beta movement">beta movement</a>, but the exact neurological causes are still uncertain. The illusion of motion caused by a rapid succession of images that minimally differ from each other, with unnoticeable interruptions, is a <a href="Stroboscopic_effect" title="Stroboscopic effect">stroboscopic effect</a>. While <a href="Animator" title="Animator">animators</a> traditionally used to draw each part of the movements and changes of figures on transparent cels that could be moved over a separate background, computer animation is usually based on programming paths between <a href="Key_frame" title="Key frame">key frames</a> to maneuver digitally created figures throughout a digitally created environment.

<a href="Analog_device" title="Analog device">Analog</a> mechanical animation media that rely on the rapid display of sequential images include the <a href="Phenakistiscope" title="Phenakistiscope">phenakistiscope</a>, <a href="Zoetrope" title="Zoetrope">zoetrope</a>, <a href="Flip_book" title="Flip book">flip book</a>, <a href="Praxinoscope" title="Praxinoscope">praxinoscope</a>, and film. <a href="Television" title="Television">Television</a> and <a href="Video" title="Video">video</a> are popular electronic animation media that originally were analog and now operate <a href="Digital_media" title="Digital media">digitally</a>. For display on computers, technology such as the <a href="Animated_GIF" class="mw-redirect" title="Animated GIF">animated GIF</a> and <a href="Flash_animation" title="Flash animation">Flash animation</a> were developed.

In addition to <a href="Short_film" title="Short film">short films</a>, <a href="Feature_film" title="Feature film">feature films</a>, <a href="Television_show" title="Television show">television series</a>, animated GIFs, and other media dedicated to the display of moving images, animation is also prevalent in <a href="Video_game" title="Video game">video games</a>, <a href="Motion_graphics" title="Motion graphics">motion graphics</a>, <a href="User_interface" title="User interface">user interfaces</a>, and <a href="Visual_effects" title="Visual effects">visual effects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchan2013-1">[1]</a>

The physical movement of image parts through simple mechanics—for instance, moving images in <a href="Magic_lantern" title="Magic lantern">magic lantern</a> shows—can also be considered animation. The mechanical manipulation of three-dimensional puppets and objects to emulate living beings has a very long history in <a href="Automaton" title="Automaton">automata</a>. Electronic automata were popularized by <a href="The_Walt_Disney_Company" title="The Walt Disney Company">Disney</a> as <a href="Animatronics" title="Animatronics">animatronics</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div>

The word animation comes to the Latin word animātiō, meaning 'bestowing of life'.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> The earlier meaning of the English word is 'liveliness' and has been in use much longer than the meaning of 'moving image medium'.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="History_of_animation" title="History of animation">History of animation</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_cinematography">Before cinematography</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Early_history_of_animation" title="Early history of animation">Early history of animation</a></div>

Long before modern animation began, audiences around the world were captivated by the magic of moving characters. For centuries, master artists and craftsmen have brought puppets, <a href="Automaton" title="Automaton">automatons</a>, <a href="Shadow_puppets" class="mw-redirect" title="Shadow puppets">shadow puppets</a>, and fantastical <a href="Lantern" title="Lantern">lanterns</a> to life, inspiring the imagination through physically manipulated wonders.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a>

In 1833, the <a href="Stroboscope" title="Stroboscope">stroboscopic</a> disc (better known as the <a href="Phenakistiscope" title="Phenakistiscope">phenakistiscope</a>) introduced the principle of modern animation, which would also be applied in the <a href="Zoetrope" title="Zoetrope">zoetrope</a> (introduced in 1866), the <a href="Flip_book" title="Flip book">flip book</a> (1868), the <a href="Praxinoscope" title="Praxinoscope">praxinoscope</a> (1877) and <a href="Film" title="Film">film</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Silent_era">Silent era</h3></div>

When <a href="Cinematography" title="Cinematography">cinematography</a> eventually broke through in the 1890s, the wonder of the realistic details in the new medium was seen as its biggest accomplishment. It took years before animation found its way to the cinemas. The successful short The Haunted Hotel (1907) by <a href="J._Stuart_Blackton" title="J. Stuart Blackton">J. Stuart Blackton</a> popularized <a href="Stop_motion" title="Stop motion">stop motion</a> and reportedly inspired <a href="%C3%89mile_Cohl" title="Émile Cohl">Émile Cohl</a> to create <a href="Fantasmagorie_(film)" title="Fantasmagorie (film)">Fantasmagorie</a> (1908), regarded as the oldest known example of a complete <a href="Traditional_animation" title="Traditional animation">traditional (hand-drawn) animation</a> on standard cinematographic film. Other great artistic and very influential short films were created by <a href="Ladislas_Starevich" title="Ladislas Starevich">Ladislas Starevich</a> with his puppet animations since 1910 and by <a href="Winsor_McCay" title="Winsor McCay">Winsor McCay</a> with detailed hand-drawn animation in films such as <a href="Little_Nemo_(1911_film)" title="Little Nemo (1911 film)">Little Nemo</a> (1911) and <a href="Gertie_the_Dinosaur" title="Gertie the Dinosaur">Gertie the Dinosaur</a> (1914).<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>

During the 1910s, the production of animated "<a href="Cartoons" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartoons">cartoons</a>" became an industry in the US.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon198928-5">[5]</a> Successful producer <a href="John_Randolph_Bray" title="John Randolph Bray">John Randolph Bray</a> and animator <a href="Earl_Hurd" title="Earl Hurd">Earl Hurd</a>, patented the <a href="Cel_animation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cel animation">cel animation</a> process that dominated the animation industry for the rest of the century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon198924-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon198934-7">[7]</a> <a href="Felix_the_Cat" title="Felix the Cat">Felix the Cat</a>, who debuted in 1919, became the first fully realized anthropomorphic animal character in the history of American animation.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_golden_age">American golden age</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Golden_Age_of_American_animation" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Age of American animation">Golden Age of American animation</a></div>

In 1928, <a href="Steamboat_Willie" title="Steamboat Willie">Steamboat Willie</a>, featuring <a href="Mickey_Mouse" title="Mickey Mouse">Mickey Mouse</a> and <a href="Minnie_Mouse" title="Minnie Mouse">Minnie Mouse</a>, popularized film-with-synchronized-sound and put <a href="Walt_Disney" title="Walt Disney">Walt Disney</a>'s studio at the forefront of the animation industry. Although <a href="Walt_Disney_Animation_Studios" title="Walt Disney Animation Studios">Disney Animation's</a> actual output relative to total global animation output has always been very small, the studio has overwhelmingly dominated the "aesthetic norms" of animation ever since.<a href="#cite_note-Furniss_Page_107-9">[9]</a>

The enormous success of Mickey Mouse is seen as the start of the <a href="Golden_age_of_American_animation" title="Golden age of American animation">golden age of American animation</a> that would last until the 1960s. The United States dominated the world market of animation with a plethora of cel-animated theatrical shorts.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Several studios would introduce characters that would become very popular and would have long-lasting careers, including <a href="Walt_Disney_Productions" class="mw-redirect" title="Walt Disney Productions">Walt Disney Productions</a>' <a href="Goofy" title="Goofy">Goofy</a> (1932) and <a href="Donald_Duck" title="Donald Duck">Donald Duck</a> (1934), <a href="Fleischer_Studios" title="Fleischer Studios">Fleischer Studios</a>/<a href="Paramount_Cartoon_Studios" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramount Cartoon Studios">Paramount Cartoon Studios</a>' <a href="Out_of_the_Inkwell" title="Out of the Inkwell">Out of the Inkwell</a>' <a href="Koko_the_Clown" title="Koko the Clown">Koko the Clown</a> (1918), <a href="Bimbo_(Fleischer_Studios)" title="Bimbo (Fleischer Studios)">Bimbo</a> and <a href="Betty_Boop" title="Betty Boop">Betty Boop</a> (1930), <a href="Popeye#Theatrical_animated_cartoons" title="Popeye">Popeye</a> (1933) and <a href="Casper_the_Friendly_Ghost" title="Casper the Friendly Ghost">Casper the Friendly Ghost</a> (1945), <a href="Warner_Bros._Cartoons" title="Warner Bros. Cartoons">Warner Bros. Cartoon Studios</a>' <a href="Looney_Tunes" title="Looney Tunes">Looney Tunes</a>' <a href="Porky_Pig" title="Porky Pig">Porky Pig</a> (1935), <a href="Daffy_Duck" title="Daffy Duck">Daffy Duck</a> (1937), <a href="Elmer_Fudd" title="Elmer Fudd">Elmer Fudd</a> (1937–1940), <a href="Bugs_Bunny" title="Bugs Bunny">Bugs Bunny</a> (1938–1940), <a href="Tweety" title="Tweety">Tweety</a> (1942), <a href="Sylvester_the_Cat" title="Sylvester the Cat">Sylvester the Cat</a> (1945), <a href="Wile_E._Coyote_and_the_Road_Runner" title="Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner">Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner</a> (1949), <a href="Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer_cartoon_studio" title="Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio">MGM cartoon studio</a>'s <a href="Tom_and_Jerry" title="Tom and Jerry">Tom and Jerry</a> (1940) and <a href="Droopy" title="Droopy">Droopy</a>, <a href="Walter_Lantz_Productions" title="Walter Lantz Productions">Universal Cartoon Studios</a>' <a href="Woody_Woodpecker" title="Woody Woodpecker">Woody Woodpecker</a> (1940), <a href="Terrytoons" title="Terrytoons">Terrytoons</a>/<a href="20th_Century_Fox" class="mw-redirect" title="20th Century Fox">20th Century Fox</a>'s <a href="Mighty_Mouse" title="Mighty Mouse">Mighty Mouse</a> (1942), and <a href="United_Artists" title="United Artists">United Artists</a>' <a href="Pink_Panther_(character)" title="Pink Panther (character)">Pink Panther</a> (1963).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Features_before_CGI">Features before CGI</h3></div>

In 1917, Italian-Argentine director <a href="Quirino_Cristiani" title="Quirino Cristiani">Quirino Cristiani</a> made the first feature-length film <a href="El_Ap%C3%B3stol" title="El Apóstol">El Apóstol</a> (now <a href="Lost_film" title="Lost film">lost</a>), which became a critical and commercial success. It was followed by Cristiani's <a href="Sin_dejar_rastros" title="Sin dejar rastros">Sin dejar rastros</a> in 1918, but one day after its premiere, the film was confiscated by the government.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a>

After working on it for three years, <a href="Lotte_Reiniger" title="Lotte Reiniger">Lotte Reiniger</a> released the German feature-length <a href="Silhouette_animation" title="Silhouette animation">silhouette animation</a> <a href="Die_Abenteuer_des_Prinzen_Achmed" class="mw-redirect" title="Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed">Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed</a> in 1926, the oldest extant animated feature.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>

In 1937, <a href="Walt_Disney_Animation_Studios" title="Walt Disney Animation Studios">Walt Disney Studios</a> premiered their first animated feature <a href="Snow_White_and_the_Seven_Dwarfs_(1937_film)" title="Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)">Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs</a>, still one of the highest-grossing traditional animation features as of May 2020.<a href="#cite_note-snowwhite1-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-snowwhite2-15">[15]</a> The Fleischer studios followed this example in 1939 with <a href="Gulliver's_Travels_(1939_film)" title="Gulliver's Travels (1939 film)">Gulliver's Travels</a> with some success. Partly due to foreign markets being cut off by the Second World War, Disney's next features <a href="Pinocchio_(1940_film)" title="Pinocchio (1940 film)">Pinocchio</a>, <a href="Fantasia_(1940_film)" title="Fantasia (1940 film)">Fantasia</a> (both 1940), Fleischer Studios' second animated feature <a href="Mr._Bug_Goes_to_Town" title="Mr. Bug Goes to Town">Mr. Bug Goes to Town</a> (1941–1942) failed at the box office. For several decades, Disney was the only American studio to regularly produce animated features, until <a href="Ralph_Bakshi" title="Ralph Bakshi">Ralph Bakshi</a> became the first to release more than a handful of features. <a href="Sullivan-Bluth_Studios" class="mw-redirect" title="Sullivan-Bluth Studios">Sullivan-Bluth Studios</a> began to regularly produce animated features starting with <a href="An_American_Tail" title="An American Tail">An American Tail</a> in 1986.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a>

Although relatively few titles became as successful as Disney's features, other countries developed their own animation industries that produced both short and feature theatrical animations in a wide variety of styles, relatively often including <a href="Stop_motion" title="Stop motion">stop motion</a> and <a href="Cutout_animation" title="Cutout animation">cutout animation</a> techniques. Soviet <a href="Soyuzmultfilm" title="Soyuzmultfilm">Soyuzmultfilm</a> animation studio, founded in 1936, produced 20 films (including shorts) per year on average and reached 1,582 titles in 2018. China, Czechoslovakia / Czech Republic, Italy, France, and Belgium were other countries that more than occasionally released feature films.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Television">Television</h3></div>

Animation became very popular on television since the 1950s, when television sets started to become common in most developed countries. Cartoons were mainly programmed for children, on convenient time slots, and especially US youth spent many hours watching <a href="Saturday-morning_cartoon" title="Saturday-morning cartoon">Saturday-morning cartoons</a>. Many classic cartoons found a new life on the small screen and by the end of the 1950s, the production of new animated cartoons started to shift from theatrical releases to TV series. <a href="Hanna-Barbera_Productions" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanna-Barbera Productions">Hanna-Barbera Productions</a> was especially prolific and had huge hit series, such as <a href="The_Flintstones" title="The Flintstones">The Flintstones</a> (1960–1966) (the first <a href="Prime_time" title="Prime time">prime time</a> animated series), <a href="Scooby-Doo" title="Scooby-Doo">Scooby-Doo</a> (since 1969) and Belgian co-production <a href="The_Smurfs_(1981_TV_series)" title="The Smurfs (1981 TV series)">The Smurfs</a> (1981–1989). The constraints of American television programming and the demand for an enormous quantity resulted in cheaper and quicker <a href="Limited_animation" title="Limited animation">limited animation</a> methods and much more formulaic scripts. Quality dwindled until more daring animation surfaced in the late 1980s and in the early 1990s with hit series, the first cartoon of <a href="The_Simpsons_shorts" title="The Simpsons shorts">The Simpsons</a> (1987), which later developed into <a href="The_Simpsons" title="The Simpsons">its own show</a> (in 1989) and <a href="SpongeBob_SquarePants" title="SpongeBob SquarePants">SpongeBob SquarePants</a> (since 1999) as part of a "renaissance" of American animation.

While US animated series also spawned successes internationally, many other countries produced their own child-oriented programming, relatively often preferring <a href="Stop_motion" title="Stop motion">stop motion</a> and <a href="Puppetry" title="Puppetry">puppetry</a> over cel animation. Japanese <a href="Anime" title="Anime">anime</a> TV series became very successful internationally since the 1960s, and European producers looking for affordable cel animators relatively often started co-productions with Japanese studios, resulting in hit series such as <a href="Barbapapa" title="Barbapapa">Barbapapa</a> (The Netherlands/Japan/France 1973–1977), <a href="Vicky_the_Viking" title="Vicky the Viking">Wickie und die starken Männer/小さなバイキングビッケ (Vicky the Viking)</a> (Austria/Germany/Japan 1974), <a href="Maya_the_Honey_Bee" title="Maya the Honey Bee">Maya the Honey Bee</a> (Japan/Germany 1975) and <a href="The_Jungle_Book_(1989_TV_series)" title="The Jungle Book (1989 TV series)">The Jungle Book</a> (Italy/Japan 1989).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Switch_from_cels_to_computers">Switch from cels to computers</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="History_of_computer_animation" title="History of computer animation">History of computer animation</a></div>

<a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Computer animation</a> was gradually developed since the 1940s. 3D wireframe animation started popping up in the mainstream in the 1970s, with an early (short) appearance in the sci-fi thriller <a href="Futureworld" title="Futureworld">Futureworld</a> (1976).<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a>

<a href="The_Rescuers_Down_Under" title="The Rescuers Down Under">The Rescuers Down Under</a> was the first feature film to be completely created digitally without a camera.<a href="#cite_note-first_digital_guinness-18">[18]</a> It was produced using the <a href="Computer_Animation_Production_System" title="Computer Animation Production System">Computer Animation Production System</a> (CAPS), developed by <a href="Pixar" title="Pixar">Pixar</a> in collaboration with <a href="The_Walt_Disney_Company" title="The Walt Disney Company">The Walt Disney Company</a> in the late 1980s, in a style similar to traditional cel animation.<a href="#cite_note-Ness_2015_p197-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Guinness_World_Records_2024_a420-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Allison_2022_u732-21">[21]</a>

The so-called 3D style, more often associated with computer animation, became the dominant technique following the success of Pixar's <a href="Toy_Story" title="Toy Story">Toy Story</a> (1995), the first computer-animated feature in this style.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a>

Most of the cel animation studios switched to producing mostly computer-animated films around the 1990s, as it proved cheaper and more profitable. Not only the very popular 3D animation style was generated with computers, but also most of the films and series with a more traditional hand-crafted appearance, in which the charming characteristics of cel animation could be emulated with software, while new digital tools helped developing new styles and effects.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_status">Economic status</h2></div>

In 2010, the animation market was estimated to be worth circa US$80 billion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoard_of_Investments2009-29">[29]</a> By 2021, the value had increased to an estimated US$370 billion.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Animated feature-length films returned the highest <a href="Gross_margin" title="Gross margin">gross margins</a> (around 52%) of all <a href="Film_genre" title="Film genre">film genres</a> between 2004 and 2013.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDuling2014-31">[31]</a> Animation as an art and industry continues to thrive as of the early 2020s.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education,_propaganda_and_commercials">Education, propaganda and commercials</h2></div>

The clarity of animation makes it a powerful tool for instruction, while its total malleability also allows exaggeration that can be employed to convey strong emotions and to thwart reality. It has therefore been widely used for other purposes than mere entertainment.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

During World War II, animation was widely exploited for propaganda. <a href="World_War_II_and_American_animation" title="World War II and American animation">Many American studios</a>, including Warner Bros. and Disney, lent their talents and their cartoon characters to convey to the public certain war values. These efforts extended to other countries well into the <a href="Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> era, particularly as it pertained to "combatting" communism. For example, the English <a href="Animal_Farm_(1954_film)" title="Animal Farm (1954 film)">1954 adaptation</a> of <a href="George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">George Orwell's</a> <a href="Animal_Farm" title="Animal Farm">Animal Farm</a> (the nation's first feature-length animated film) is speculated to have had its production funded by the CIA.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>

Animation has been very popular in television commercials, both due to its graphic appeal, and the humour it can provide. Some animated characters in commercials have survived for decades, such as <a href="Snap%2C_Crackle_and_Pop" title="Snap, Crackle and Pop">Snap, Crackle and Pop</a> in advertisements for Kellogg's cereals.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <a href="Tex_Avery" title="Tex Avery">Tex Avery</a> was the producer of the first <a href="Raid_(insecticide)" title="Raid (insecticide)">Raid</a> "<a href="Kills_Bugs_Dead" class="mw-redirect" title="Kills Bugs Dead">Kills Bugs Dead</a>" commercials in 1966, which were very successful for the company.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_media,_merchandise_and_theme_parks">Other media, merchandise and theme parks</h2></div>

Apart from their success in movie theaters and television series, many cartoon characters would also prove lucrative when licensed for all kinds of merchandise and for other media.

Animation has traditionally been very closely related to <a href="Comic_book" title="Comic book">comic books</a>. While many comic book characters found their way to the screen (which is often the case in Japan, where many <a href="Manga" title="Manga">manga</a> are adapted into <a href="Anime" title="Anime">anime</a>), original animated characters also commonly appear in comic books and magazines. Somewhat similarly, characters and plots for <a href="Video_game" title="Video game">video games</a> (an interactive form of animation that became its own medium) have been derived from films and vice versa.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a>

Some of the original content produced for the screen can be used and marketed in other media. Stories and images can easily be adapted into children's books and other printed media. Songs and music have appeared on records and as streaming media.

While very many animation companies commercially exploit their creations outside moving image media, <a href="The_Walt_Disney_Company" title="The Walt Disney Company">The Walt Disney Company</a> is the best known and most extreme example. Since first being licensed for a children's writing tablet in 1929, their <a href="Mickey_Mouse" title="Mickey Mouse">Mickey Mouse</a> mascot has been <a href="Mickey_Mouse#Merchandising" title="Mickey Mouse">depicted on an enormous amount of products</a>, as have many other Disney characters. This may have influenced some <a href="Mickey_Mouse#Pejorative_use_of_Mickey's_name" title="Mickey Mouse">pejorative use of Mickey's name</a>, but <a href="Disney_Consumer_Products" title="Disney Consumer Products">licensed Disney products</a> sell well, and the so-called <a href="Disneyana" title="Disneyana">Disneyana</a> has many avid collectors, and even a dedicated <a href="Disneyana_Fan_Club" title="Disneyana Fan Club">Disneyana Fan Club</a> (since 1984).<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a>

<a href="Disneyland" title="Disneyland">Disneyland</a> opened in 1955 and features many attractions that were based on Disney's cartoon characters. Its enormous success spawned several other <a href="Disney_Experiences#Disney_resorts" title="Disney Experiences">Disney theme parks and resorts</a>. <a href="The_Walt_Disney_Company#Financial_data" title="The Walt Disney Company">Disney's earnings</a> from the theme parks have relatively often been higher than those from their movies.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards">Awards</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="List_of_animation_awards" title="List of animation awards">List of animation awards</a></div>

As with any other form of media, animation has instituted awards for excellence in the field. Many are part of general or regional film award programs, like the China's <a href="Golden_Rooster_Awards" title="Golden Rooster Awards">Golden Rooster Award</a> for <a href="Golden_Rooster_Award_for_Best_Animation" title="Golden Rooster Award for Best Animation">Best Animation</a> (since 1981). Awards programs dedicated to animation, with many categories, include <a href="ASIFA-Hollywood" title="ASIFA-Hollywood">ASIFA-Hollywood</a>'s <a href="Annie_Awards" title="Annie Awards">Annie Awards</a>, the <a href="Emile_Awards" title="Emile Awards">Emile Awards</a> in Europe and the <a href="Anima_Mundi_(event)" title="Anima Mundi (event)">Anima Mundi</a> awards in Brazil.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academy_Awards">Academy Awards</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="List_of_animated_feature_films_nominated_for_Academy_Awards" title="List of animated feature films nominated for Academy Awards">List of animated feature films nominated for Academy Awards</a></div>

Apart from <a href="Academy_Awards" title="Academy Awards">Academy Awards</a> for <a href="Academy_Award_for_Best_Animated_Short_Film" title="Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film">Best Animated Short Film</a> (since 1932) and <a href="Academy_Award_for_Best_Animated_Feature" title="Academy Award for Best Animated Feature">Best Animated Feature</a> (since 2002), animated movies have been nominated and rewarded in other categories, relatively often for <a href="Academy_Award_for_Best_Original_Song" title="Academy Award for Best Original Song">Best Original Song</a> and <a href="Academy_Award_for_Best_Original_Score" title="Academy Award for Best Original Score">Best Original Score</a>.

<a href="Beauty_and_the_Beast_(1991_film)" title="Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)">Beauty and the Beast</a> was the first animated film nominated for <a href="Academy_Award_for_Best_Picture" title="Academy Award for Best Picture">Best Picture</a>, in 1991. <a href="Up_(2009_film)" title="Up (2009 film)">Up</a> (2009) and <a href="Toy_Story_3" title="Toy Story 3">Toy Story 3</a> (2010) also received Best Picture nominations, after the academy expanded the number of nominees from five to ten.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2></div>

The creation of non-trivial animation works (i.e., longer than a few seconds) has developed as a form of <a href="Filmmaking" title="Filmmaking">filmmaking</a>, with certain unique aspects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998117-46">[46]</a> Traits common to both live-action and animated <a href="Feature_film" title="Feature film">feature films</a> are labor intensity and high production costs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon1989274-47">[47]</a>

The most important difference is that once a film is in the production phase, the <a href="Marginal_cost" title="Marginal cost">marginal cost</a> of one more shot is higher for animated films than live-action films.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2006151-48">[48]</a> It is relatively easy for a director to ask for one more <a href="Take" title="Take">take</a> during <a href="Principal_photography" title="Principal photography">principal photography</a> of a live-action film, but every take on an animated film must be manually rendered by animators (although the task of rendering slightly different takes has been made less tedious by modern computer animation).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998339-49">[49]</a> It is pointless for a studio to pay the salaries of dozens of animators to spend weeks creating a visually dazzling five-minute scene if that scene fails to effectively advance the plot of the film.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECulhane199055-50">[50]</a> Thus, animation studios starting with Disney began the practice in the 1930s of maintaining story departments where <a href="Storyboard_artist" title="Storyboard artist">storyboard artists</a> develop every single scene through <a href="Storyboard" title="Storyboard">storyboards</a>, then handing the film over to the animators only after the production team is satisfied that all the scenes make sense as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon1989120-51">[51]</a> While live-action films are now also storyboarded, they enjoy more latitude to depart from storyboards (i.e., real-time improvisation).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998100–01-52">[52]</a>

Another problem unique to animation is the requirement to maintain a film's consistency from start to finish, even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger. Animators, like all artists, necessarily have individual styles, but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to whatever style is employed on a particular film.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanemaker1996xi–xii-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson200794-54">[54]</a> Since the early 1980s, teams of about 500 to 600 people, of whom 50 to 70 are animators, typically have created feature-length animated films. It is relatively easy for two or three artists to match their styles; synchronizing those of dozens of artists is more difficult.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck200437-55">[55]</a>

This problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before the animation begins.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanemaker1996xi–xii-53">[53]</a> While animators must "sacrifice their personal drawing styles so that the work of many hands appears to be that of one", visual development artists are allowed to "create new worlds, new characters, and new entertainment possibilities in their own individualistic graphic styles".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECanemaker1996xi–xii-53">[53]</a> Character designers on the visual development team draw <a href="Model_sheet" title="Model sheet">model sheets</a> to show how each character should look like with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200134-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECulhane1990146-57">[57]</a> On traditionally animated projects, <a href="Maquette" title="Maquette">maquettes</a> were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200134-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200152–57-58">[58]</a>

Unlike live-action films, animated films were traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage through the storyboard format; the storyboard artists would then receive credit for writing the film.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne199899–100-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4-60">[60]</a> The traditional approach worked for several decades because prior to the 1960s, no one except Disney was attempting to regularly produce feature-length animated films.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4-60">[60]</a> All other animation studios, with occasional exceptions, were producing <a href="Short_film" title="Short film">short films</a> only a few minutes in length.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4-60">[60]</a> For short films, it was enough for the storyboard artists to work up a few <a href="Visual_gag" title="Visual gag">visual gags</a> and then string them together to form a crude plot.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4-60">[60]</a>

In 1960, <a href="Hanna-Barbera" title="Hanna-Barbera">Hanna-Barbera</a> pioneered the longer <a href="Animated_sitcom" title="Animated sitcom">animated sitcom</a> format for television with <a href="The_Flintstones" title="The Flintstones">The Flintstones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4-60">[60]</a> Hanna-Barbera and the other early television animation studios soon discovered that storyboarding was far too inefficient to fill up a half-hour episode on the extremely tight budgets typical of television.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4-60">[60]</a> During the 1960s, these studios experimented with a more efficient method for developing story material: a <a href="Screenwriter" title="Screenwriter">screenwriter</a> is hired to draft a written <a href="Screenplay" title="Screenplay">screenplay</a> which is approved and handed over to the storyboard artists for storyboarding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4-60">[60]</a> This method creates significant tension between screenwriters and storyboard artists, in that some artists feel that people who cannot draw should not be writing for animation, while some writers feel that artists do not understand how to write.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4-60">[60]</a> Despite that tension, it has become and remains the dominant method by which animation studios develop both feature-length films and television shows.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4-60">[60]</a>

Ironically, the Disney studio was relatively slow to adopt this method. The first Disney feature animated film to have a complete screenplay written and approved before storyboarding was <a href="One_Hundred_and_One_Dalmatians" title="One Hundred and One Dalmatians">One Hundred and One Dalmatians</a> (1961).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeriDocter2024195-61">[61]</a> However, 101 Dalmatians was "a short-lived experiment"; the next Disney film to follow this method was <a href="The_Great_Mouse_Detective" title="The Great Mouse Detective">The Great Mouse Detective</a> (1986).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeriDocter2024195-61">[61]</a>

Finally, another key difference is that actors traditionally record vocal tracks for animated films in separate individual sessions; they often meet one another for the first time only at the film's <a href="Premiere" title="Premiere">premiere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hayes_Page_176-62">[62]</a> Actors usually schedule sessions in the <a href="Recording_studio" title="Recording studio">recording studio</a> around their live-action work.<a href="#cite_note-Hayes_Page_176-62">[62]</a> In live-action filmmaking, it is very common for actors to drop out of projects due to scheduling conflicts, while in animation, recording actors separately makes it possible to "get a lot more stars into one movie than" would be possible if those actors needed to be physically present on the same set at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-Hayes_Page_176-62">[62]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Techniques">Techniques</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Traditional">Traditional</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Traditional_animation" title="Traditional animation">Traditional animation</a></div>

Traditional animation (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) is the process that was used for most animated films of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite200631-63">[63]</a> The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on paper.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerman2003153-64">[64]</a> To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called <a href="Cel" title="Cel">cels</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomasJohnston1981277–79-65">[65]</a> which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998203-66">[66]</a> The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by a <a href="Rostrum_camera" title="Rostrum camera">rostrum camera</a> onto motion picture film.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2006195–201-67">[67]</a>

The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century. In modern traditionally animated films, animators' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchan2013-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2006394-68">[68]</a> Various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECulhane1990296-69">[69]</a> The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery media, including traditional <a href="35_mm_movie_film" title="35 mm movie film">35 mm film</a> and newer media with <a href="Digital_video" title="Digital video">digital video</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchan2013-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne199835–36,_52–53-70">[70]</a> The "look" of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the <a href="Character_animation" title="Character animation">character animators</a>' work has remained essentially the same over the past 90 years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200152–57-58">[58]</a> Some animation producers have used the term "tradigital" (a play on the words "traditional" and "digital") to describe cel animation that uses significant computer technology.

Examples of traditionally animated feature films include <a href="Pinocchio_(1940_film)" title="Pinocchio (1940 film)">Pinocchio</a> (United States, 1940),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon198963–65-71">[71]</a> <a href="Animal_Farm_(1954_film)" title="Animal Farm (1954 film)">Animal Farm</a> (United Kingdom, 1954), <a href="Lucky_and_Zorba" title="Lucky and Zorba">Lucky and Zorba</a> (Italy, 1998), and <a href="The_Illusionist_(2010_film)" title="The Illusionist (2010 film)">The Illusionist</a> (British-French, 2010). Traditionally animated films produced with the aid of computer technology include <a href="The_Lion_King" title="The Lion King">The Lion King</a> (US, 1994), <a href="Anastasia_(1997_film)" title="Anastasia (1997 film)">Anastasia</a> (US, 1997), <a href="The_Prince_of_Egypt" title="The Prince of Egypt">The Prince of Egypt</a> (US, 1998), <a href="Akira_(1988_film)" title="Akira (1988 film)">Akira</a> (Japan, 1988),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerman200380-72">[72]</a> <a href="Spirited_Away" title="Spirited Away">Spirited Away</a> (Japan, 2001), <a href="The_Triplets_of_Belleville" title="The Triplets of Belleville">The Triplets of Belleville</a> (France, 2003), and <a href="The_Secret_of_Kells" title="The Secret of Kells">The Secret of Kells</a> (Irish-French-Belgian, 2009).

Full animation is the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECulhane199071-73">[73]</a> having a smooth animation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECulhane1990194–95-74">[74]</a> Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works like those produced by the <a href="Walt_Disney_Animation_Studios" title="Walt Disney Animation Studios">Walt Disney studio</a> (<a href="The_Little_Mermaid_(1989_film)" title="The Little Mermaid (1989 film)">The Little Mermaid</a>, <a href="Beauty_and_the_Beast_(1991_film)" title="Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)">Beauty and the Beast</a>, <a href="Aladdin_(1992_Disney_film)" title="Aladdin (1992 Disney film)">Aladdin</a>, <a href="The_Lion_King" title="The Lion King">The Lion King</a>) to the more 'cartoon' styles of the <a href="Warner_Bros._Cartoons" title="Warner Bros. Cartoons">Warner Bros. animation studio</a>. Many of the <a href="Disney_animated_features" class="mw-redirect" title="Disney animated features">Disney animated features</a> are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works, <a href="The_Secret_of_NIMH" title="The Secret of NIMH">The Secret of NIMH</a> (US, 1982), <a href="The_Iron_Giant" title="The Iron Giant">The Iron Giant</a> (US, 1999), and <a href="Nocturna_(film)" title="Nocturna (film)">Nocturna</a> (Spain, 2007). Fully animated films are often animated on "twos", sometimes on "ones", which means that 12 to 24 drawings are required for a single second of film.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne199825–26-75">[75]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Limited">Limited</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Limited_animation" title="Limited animation">Limited animation</a></div>

<a href="Limited_animation" title="Limited animation">Limited animation</a> involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings and methods of movement usually a choppy or "skippy" movement animation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerman2003142-76">[76]</a> Limited animation uses fewer drawings per second, thereby limiting the fluidity of the animation. This is a more economic technique. Pioneered by the artists at the American studio <a href="United_Productions_of_America" title="United Productions of America">United Productions of America</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerman200354–55-77">[77]</a> limited animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as in <a href="Gerald_McBoing-Boing" title="Gerald McBoing-Boing">Gerald McBoing-Boing</a> (US, 1951), <a href="Yellow_Submarine_(film)" title="Yellow Submarine (film)">Yellow Submarine</a> (UK, 1968), and certain <a href="Anime" title="Anime">anime</a> produced in Japan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELedoux199724,_29-78">[78]</a> Its primary use, however, has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media for television (the work of Hanna-Barbera,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawsonPersons200482-79">[79]</a> <a href="Filmation" title="Filmation">Filmation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon1989241-80">[80]</a> and other TV animation studios<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawsonPersons2004xxi-81">[81]</a>) and later the <a href="Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> (<a href="Web_cartoon" class="mw-redirect" title="Web cartoon">web cartoons</a>).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rotoscoping">Rotoscoping</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Rotoscoping" title="Rotoscoping">Rotoscoping</a></div>

Rotoscoping is a technique patented by <a href="Max_Fleischer" title="Max Fleischer">Max Fleischer</a> in 1917 where animators trace live-action movement, frame by frame.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrafton1993158-82">[82]</a> The source film can be directly copied from actors' outlines into animated drawings,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998163–64-83">[83]</a> as in <a href="The_Lord_of_the_Rings_(1978_film)" title="The Lord of the Rings (1978 film)">The Lord of the Rings</a> (US, 1978), or used in a stylized and expressive manner, as in <a href="Waking_Life" title="Waking Life">Waking Life</a> (US, 2001) and <a href="A_Scanner_Darkly_(film)" title="A Scanner Darkly (film)">A Scanner Darkly</a> (US, 2006). Some other examples are <a href="Fire_and_Ice_(1983_film)" title="Fire and Ice (1983 film)">Fire and Ice</a> (US, 1983), <a href="Heavy_Metal_(film)" title="Heavy Metal (film)">Heavy Metal</a> (1981), and <a href="The_Flowers_of_Evil_(manga)" title="The Flowers of Evil (manga)">Aku no Hana</a> (Japan, 2013).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Live-action_blending">Live-action blending</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Films_with_live_action_and_animation" class="mw-redirect" title="Films with live action and animation">Films with live action and animation</a></div>

<a href="List_of_films_with_live_action_and_animation" title="List of films with live action and animation">Live-action/animation</a> is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots or live-action actors into animated shots.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998162–63-84">[84]</a> One of the earlier uses was in <a href="Koko_the_Clown" title="Koko the Clown">Koko the Clown</a> when Koko was drawn over live-action footage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck200418–19-85">[85]</a> Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks created a series of <a href="Alice_Comedies" title="Alice Comedies">Alice Comedies</a> (1923–1927), in which a live-action girl enters an animated world. Other examples include <a href="Allegro_Non_Troppo" class="mw-redirect" title="Allegro Non Troppo">Allegro Non Troppo</a> (Italy, 1976), <a href="Who_Framed_Roger_Rabbit" title="Who Framed Roger Rabbit">Who Framed Roger Rabbit</a> (US, 1988), <a href="Volere_volare" class="mw-redirect" title="Volere volare">Volere volare</a> (Italy 1991), <a href="Space_Jam" title="Space Jam">Space Jam</a> (US, 1996) and <a href="Osmosis_Jones" title="Osmosis Jones">Osmosis Jones</a> (US, 2001).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stop_motion">Stop motion</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Stop_motion" title="Stop motion">Stop motion</a></div>

<a href="Stop_motion" title="Stop motion">Stop motion</a> is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon1989299-86">[86]</a> There are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the materials used to create the animation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998159-87">[87]</a> Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation; traditional stop-motion animation is usually less expensive but more time-consuming to produce than current computer animation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998159-87">[87]</a>

<dl><dt><a href="Stop_motion" title="Stop motion">Stop motion</a></dt>

<dd>Typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting in a constructed environment, in contrast to real-world interaction in model animation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon1989171-88">[88]</a> The puppets generally have an <a href="Armature_(sculpture)" title="Armature (sculpture)">armature</a> inside of them to keep them still and steady to constrain their motion to particular joints.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998155–56-89">[89]</a> Examples include <a href="The_Tale_of_the_Fox" title="The Tale of the Fox">The Tale of the Fox</a> (France, 1937), <a href="The_Nightmare_Before_Christmas" title="The Nightmare Before Christmas">The Nightmare Before Christmas</a> (US, 1993), <a href="Corpse_Bride" title="Corpse Bride">Corpse Bride</a> (US, 2005), <a href="Coraline_(film)" title="Coraline (film)">Coraline</a> (US, 2009), the films of <a href="Ji%C5%99%C3%AD_Trnka" title="Jiří Trnka">Jiří Trnka</a> and the adult animated sketch-comedy television series <a href="Robot_Chicken" title="Robot Chicken">Robot Chicken</a> (US, 2005–present).

<dl><dt><a href="Puppetoons" title="Puppetoons">Puppetoons</a></dt>

<dd>Created using techniques developed by <a href="George_Pal" title="George Pal">George Pal</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck200470-90">[90]</a> are puppet-animated films that typically use a different version of a puppet for different frames, rather than manipulating one existing puppet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck200492–93-91">[91]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Clay_animation" class="mw-redirect" title="Clay animation">Clay animation</a> or <a href="Plasticine" title="Plasticine">Plasticine</a> animation</dt>

<dd>(Often called claymation, which, however, is a <a href="Laika%2C_LLC" title="Laika, LLC">trademarked</a> name). It uses figures made of clay or a similar malleable material to create stop-motion animation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon1989299-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998150–151-92">[92]</a> The figures may have an <a href="Armature_(sculpture)" title="Armature (sculpture)">armature</a> or wire frame inside, similar to the related puppet animation (below), that can be manipulated to pose the figures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998151–54-93">[93]</a> Alternatively, the figures may be made entirely of clay, in the films of <a href="Bruce_Bickford_(animator)" title="Bruce Bickford (animator)">Bruce Bickford</a>, where clay creatures morph into a variety of different shapes. Examples of clay-animated works include The <a href="Gumby" title="Gumby">Gumby</a> Show (US, 1957–1967), <a href="Mio_Mao" title="Mio Mao">Mio Mao</a> (Italy, 1974–2005), <a href="Morph_(TV_series)" title="Morph (TV series)">Morph</a> shorts (UK, 1977–2000), <a href="Wallace_%26_Gromit" title="Wallace & Gromit">Wallace & Gromit</a> shorts (UK, as of 1989), <a href="Jan_%C5%A0vankmajer" title="Jan Švankmajer">Jan Švankmajer</a>'s <a href="Dimensions_of_Dialogue" title="Dimensions of Dialogue">Dimensions of Dialogue</a> (<a href="Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, 1982), <a href="The_Trap_Door" title="The Trap Door">The Trap Door</a> (UK, 1984). Films include <a href="Wallace_%26_Gromit%3A_The_Curse_of_the_Were-Rabbit" title="Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit">Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit</a>, <a href="Chicken_Run" title="Chicken Run">Chicken Run</a> and <a href="The_Adventures_of_Mark_Twain_(1985_film)" title="The Adventures of Mark Twain (1985 film)">The Adventures of Mark Twain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2004250-94">[94]</a>

<dl><dt><a href="Strata-cut_animation" title="Strata-cut animation">Strata-cut animation</a></dt>

<dd>Most commonly a form of clay animation in which a long bread-like "loaf" of clay, internally packed tight and loaded with varying imagery, is sliced into thin sheets, with the animation camera taking a frame of the end of the loaf for each cut, eventually revealing the movement of the internal images within.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFurniss199852–54-95">[95]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Cutout_animation" title="Cutout animation">Cutout animation</a></dt>

<dd>A type of stop-motion animation produced by moving two-dimensional pieces of material paper or cloth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne199859–60-96">[96]</a> Examples include <a href="Terry_Gilliam" title="Terry Gilliam">Terry Gilliam</a>'s animated sequences from <a href="Monty_Python's_Flying_Circus" title="Monty Python's Flying Circus">Monty Python's Flying Circus</a> (UK, 1969–1974); <a href="Fantastic_Planet" title="Fantastic Planet">Fantastic Planet</a> (France/Czechoslovakia, 1973); <a href="Tale_of_Tales_(1979_film)" title="Tale of Tales (1979 film)">Tale of Tales</a> (Russia, 1979), <a href="Matt_Stone" title="Matt Stone">Matt Stone</a> and <a href="Trey_Parker" title="Trey Parker">Trey Parker</a> the first cutout animation <a href="South_Park_(franchise)" title="South Park (franchise)">South Park</a> (1992), the pilot episode of the adult television sitcom series (and sometimes in episodes) of <a href="South_Park" title="South Park">South Park</a> (US, 1997) and the music video Live for the moment, from Verona Riots band (produced by Alberto Serrano and Nívola Uyá, Spain 2014).

<dl><dt><a href="Silhouette_animation" title="Silhouette animation">Silhouette animation</a></dt>

<dd>A variant of cutout animation in which the characters are backlit and only visible as silhouettes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECulhane1990170–171-97">[97]</a> Examples include <a href="The_Adventures_of_Prince_Achmed" title="The Adventures of Prince Achmed">The Adventures of Prince Achmed</a> (<a href="Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a>, 1926) and <a href="Princes_et_Princesses" title="Princes et Princesses">Princes et Princesses</a> (France, 2000).</dd></dl></dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Model_animation" title="Model animation">Model animation</a></dt>

<dd>Stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarryhausenDalton20089–11-98">[98]</a> Intercutting, <a href="Matte_(filmmaking)" title="Matte (filmmaking)">matte</a> effects and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings.<a href="#cite_note-Harryhausen_Dalton222–226-99">[99]</a> Examples include the work of <a href="Ray_Harryhausen" title="Ray Harryhausen">Ray Harryhausen</a>, as seen in films, <a href="Jason_and_the_Argonauts_(1963_film)" title="Jason and the Argonauts (1963 film)">Jason and the Argonauts</a> (1963),<a href="#cite_note-Harryhausen_Dalton18-100">[100]</a> and the work of <a href="Willis_H._O'Brien" title="Willis H. O'Brien">Willis H. O'Brien</a> on films, <a href="King_Kong_(1933_film)" title="King Kong (1933 film)">King Kong</a> (1933).

<dl><dt><a href="Go_motion" title="Go motion">Go motion</a></dt>

<dd>A variant of model animation that uses various techniques to create <a href="Motion_blur" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion blur">motion blur</a> between frames of film, which is not present in traditional stop motion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith198690-101">[101]</a> The technique was invented by <a href="Industrial_Light_%26_Magic" title="Industrial Light & Magic">Industrial Light & Magic</a> and <a href="Phil_Tippett" title="Phil Tippett">Phil Tippett</a> to create <a href="Special_effect" title="Special effect">special effect</a> scenes for the film <a href="Star_Wars%3A_Episode_V_%E2%80%93_The_Empire_Strikes_Back" class="mw-redirect" title="Star Wars: Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back">Star Wars: Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back</a> (1980).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatercutter2012-102">[102]</a> Another example is the dragon named "Vermithrax" from the 1981 film <a href="Dragonslayer_(1981_film)" title="Dragonslayer (1981 film)">Dragonslayer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith198691–95-103">[103]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Object_animation" title="Object animation">Object animation</a></dt>

<dd>The use of regular inanimate objects in stop-motion animation, as opposed to specially created items.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne199851–57-104">[104]</a>

<dl><dt><a href="Graphic_animation" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphic animation">Graphic animation</a></dt>

<dd>Uses non-drawn flat visual graphic material (photographs, newspaper clippings, magazines, etc.), which are sometimes manipulated frame by frame to create movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998128-105">[105]</a> At other times, the graphics remain stationary, while the stop-motion camera is moved to create on-screen action.</dd>

<dt><a href="Brickfilm" title="Brickfilm">Brickfilm</a></dt>

<dd>A subgenre of object animation involving using <a href="Lego" title="Lego">Lego</a> or other similar brick toys to make an animation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaul2005357–63-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman2014-107">[107]</a> These have had a recent boost in popularity with the advent of video sharing sites, <a href="YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> and the availability of cheap cameras and <a href="Animation_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Animation software">animation software</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AMPS-108">[108]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<dl><dt><a href="Pixilation" title="Pixilation">Pixilation</a></dt>

<dd>Involves the use of live humans as stop-motion characters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne199875–79-109">[109]</a> This allows for a number of surreal effects, including disappearances and reappearances, allowing people to appear to slide across the ground, and other effects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne199875–79-109">[109]</a> Examples of pixilation include <a href="The_Secret_Adventures_of_Tom_Thumb" title="The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb">The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb</a> and <a href="Angry_Kid" title="Angry Kid">Angry Kid</a> shorts, and the <a href="Academy_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Academy Award">Academy Award</a>-winning <a href="Neighbours_(1952_film)" title="Neighbours (1952 film)">Neighbours</a> by <a href="Norman_McLaren" title="Norman McLaren">Norman McLaren</a>.</dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer">Computer</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Computer animation</a></div>

Computer animation encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECulhane1990296-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESerenko2007-110">[110]</a> 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson2007405-111">[111]</a> 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESerenko2007482-112">[112]</a>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="2D_computer_graphics" title="2D computer graphics">2D computer graphics</a></div>

<a href="2D_computer_graphics" title="2D computer graphics">2D animation</a> figures are created or edited on the computer using 2D <a href="Raster_graphics" title="Raster graphics">bitmap graphics</a> and 2D <a href="Vector_graphics" title="Vector graphics">vector graphics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson2007165-113">[113]</a> This includes automated computerized versions of traditional animation techniques, <a href="Interpolation" title="Interpolation">interpolated</a> <a href="Morphing" title="Morphing">morphing</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESito201332,_70,_132-114">[114]</a> <a href="Onion_skinning" title="Onion skinning">onion skinning</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriebe200671–72-115">[115]</a> and interpolated rotoscoping. 2D animation has many applications, including After Effects Animation, <a href="Scanimate" title="Scanimate">analog computer animation</a>, <a href="Flash_animation" title="Flash animation">Flash animation</a>, and <a href="PowerPoint_animation" title="PowerPoint animation">PowerPoint animation</a>. <a href="Cinemagraph" title="Cinemagraph">Cinemagraphs</a> are <a href="Still_life_photography" title="Still life photography">still photographs</a> in the form of an <a href="Animated_GIF" class="mw-redirect" title="Animated GIF">animated GIF</a> file of which part is animated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2006392-116">[116]</a>

Final line <a href="Advection" title="Advection">advection</a> animation is a technique used in 2D animation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoweSchnotz2008246–47-117">[117]</a> to give artists and animators more influence and control over the final product as everything is done within the same department.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson2007127–28-118">[118]</a> Speaking about using this approach in <a href="Paperman" title="Paperman">Paperman</a>, John Kahrs said that "Our animators can change things, actually erase away the CG underlayer if they want, and change the profile of the arm."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2012-119">[119]</a>

When working with game animations, <a href="Skeletal_animation" title="Skeletal animation">skeletal</a> 2D animations are commonly created using tools like Spine, DragonBones, Blender COA Tools, Rive, and the built-in Unity editor. The primary benefit of this approach is the ability to reuse images, which reduces the amount of graphics stored in RAM. This principle of maximizing resource efficiency means that by reusing existing elements, you can enhance the visual appeal of animations without needing to create additional graphics.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Computer animation</a> and <a href="3D_computer_graphics" title="3D computer graphics">3D computer graphics</a></div>

3D animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. The 3D model maker usually starts by creating a 3D <a href="Polygon_mesh" title="Polygon mesh">polygon mesh</a> for the animator to manipulate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson200788-121">[121]</a> A mesh typically includes many vertices that are connected by edges and faces, which give the visual appearance of form to a 3D object or 3D environment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson200788-121">[121]</a> Sometimes, the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure called an <a href="Armature_(computer_animation)" title="Armature (computer animation)">armature</a> that can be used to control the mesh by weighting the vertices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESito2013208-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson200778–80-123">[123]</a> This process is called rigging and can be used in conjunction with <a href="Key_frame" title="Key frame">key frames</a> to create movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESito2013285-124">[124]</a>

Other techniques can be applied, mathematical functions (e.g., gravity, particle simulations), simulated fur or hair, and effects, fire and <a href="Fluid_animation" title="Fluid animation">water simulations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson200796-125">[125]</a> These techniques fall under the category of 3D dynamics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoweSchnotz200892-126">[126]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Terms">Terms</h5></div>

<ul><li><a href="Cel_shading" title="Cel shading">Cel shading</a> is used to mimic traditional animation using computer software.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> The shading looks stark, with less blending of colors. Examples include <a href="Skyland" title="Skyland">Skyland</a> (2007, France), <a href="The_Iron_Giant" title="The Iron Giant">The Iron Giant</a> (1999, U.S.), <a href="Futurama" title="Futurama">Futurama</a> (1999, U.S.) <a href="Appleseed_Ex_Machina" title="Appleseed Ex Machina">Appleseed Ex Machina</a> (2007, Japan), <a href="The_Legend_of_Zelda%3A_The_Wind_Waker" title="The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker">The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker</a> (2002, Japan), <a href="The_Legend_of_Zelda%3A_Breath_of_the_Wild" title="The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild">The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild</a> (2017, Japan)</li>

<li><a href="Machinima" title="Machinima">Machinima</a> – Films created by screen capturing in video games and virtual worlds. The term originated from the software introduction in the 1980s <a href="Demoscene" title="Demoscene">demoscene</a>, as well as the 1990s recordings of the <a href="First-person_shooter" title="First-person shooter">first-person shooter</a> video game <a href="Quake_(video_game)" title="Quake (video game)">Quake</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Motion_capture" title="Motion capture">Motion capture</a> is used when live-action actors wear special suits that allow computers to copy their movements into CG characters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESito2013207–08-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson2007204-129">[129]</a> Examples include <a href="The_Polar_Express_(film)" title="The Polar Express (film)">Polar Express</a> (2004, US), <a href="Beowulf_(2007_film)" title="Beowulf (2007 film)">Beowulf</a> (2007, US), <a href="A_Christmas_Carol_(2009_film)" title="A Christmas Carol (2009 film)">A Christmas Carol</a> (2009, US), <a href="The_Adventures_of_Tintin_(film)" title="The Adventures of Tintin (film)">The Adventures of Tintin</a> (2011, US) <a href="Kochadaiiyaan" title="Kochadaiiyaan">kochadiiyan</a> (2014, India)</li>

<li><a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Computer animation</a> is used primarily for animation that attempts to resemble real life while having a stylized cartoonish appearance, using advanced rendering that mimics in detail skin, plants, water, fire, clouds, etc.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParent200719-130">[130]</a> Examples include <a href="Up_(2009_film)" title="Up (2009 film)">Up</a> (2009, US), <a href="How_to_Train_Your_Dragon_(2010_film)" title="How to Train Your Dragon (2010 film)">How to Train Your Dragon</a> (2010, US)</li>

<li><a href="Physically_based_animation" title="Physically based animation">Physically based animation</a> is animation using <a href="Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">computer simulations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanical">Mechanical</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="Animatronics" title="Animatronics">Animatronics</a> is the use of <a href="Mechatronics" title="Mechatronics">mechatronics</a> to create machines that seem animate rather than robotic.

<ul><li><a href="Audio-Animatronics" title="Audio-Animatronics">Audio-Animatronics</a> is a form of <a href="Robotics" title="Robotics">robotics</a> animation, combined with 3-D animation, created by <a href="Walt_Disney_Imagineering" title="Walt Disney Imagineering">Walt Disney Imagineering</a> for shows and attractions at Disney theme parks move and make noise (generally a recorded speech or song).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPilling1997249-132">[132]</a> They are fixed to whatever supports them. They can sit and stand, and they cannot walk. An Audio-Animatron is different from an <a href="Android_(robot)" title="Android (robot)">android</a>-type robot in that it uses prerecorded movements and sounds, rather than responding to external stimuli. In 2009, Disney created an interactive version of the technology called Autonomatronics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Keefe2014-133">[133]</a></li>

<li><a href="Linear_alternator" title="Linear alternator">Linear Animation Generator</a> is a form of animation by using static picture frames installed in a tunnel or a shaft. The animation illusion is created by putting the viewer in a linear motion, parallel to the installed picture frames.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParent200722–23-134">[134]</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Chuckimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chuckimation">Chuckimation</a> is a type of animation created by the makers of the television series <a href="Action_League_Now!" title="Action League Now!">Action League Now!</a> in which characters/props are thrown, or chucked from off camera or wiggled around to simulate talking by unseen hands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenyon1998-135">[135]</a></li>

<li>The <a href="Magic_lantern" title="Magic lantern">magic lantern</a> used mechanical slides to project moving images. <a href="Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> was thought to have invented the magic lantern in the mid-1600s.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="Musical_fountain" title="Musical fountain">Musical fountain</a>: a <a href="Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">hydrautechnical</a> show that includes water and lights, nowadays often combined with lasers and high-definition projections on mist screens.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a></li>

<li><a href="Drawn-on-film_animation" title="Drawn-on-film animation">Drawn-on-film animation</a>: a technique where footage is produced by creating the images directly on <a href="Film_stock" title="Film stock">film stock</a>; for example, by <a href="Norman_McLaren" title="Norman McLaren">Norman McLaren</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaberWalters20041979-138">[138]</a> <a href="Len_Lye" title="Len Lye">Len Lye</a> and <a href="Stan_Brakhage" title="Stan Brakhage">Stan Brakhage</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Paint-on-glass_animation" title="Paint-on-glass animation">Paint-on-glass animation</a>: a technique for making animated films by manipulating slow drying <a href="Oil_paint" title="Oil paint">oil paints</a> on sheets of glass,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPilling1997222-139">[139]</a> for example by <a href="Aleksandr_Petrov_(animator)" title="Aleksandr Petrov (animator)">Aleksandr Petrov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></li>

<li><a href="Charcoal" title="Charcoal">Erasure animation</a>: a technique using traditional 2D media, photographed over time as the artist manipulates the image. For example, <a href="William_Kentridge" title="William Kentridge">William Kentridge</a> is famous for his <a href="Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> erasure films,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarbone2010-141">[141]</a> and <a href="Piotr_Duma%C5%82a" title="Piotr Dumała">Piotr Dumała</a> for his auteur technique of animating scratches on plaster.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></li>

<li><a href="Pinscreen_animation" title="Pinscreen animation">Pinscreen animation</a>: makes use of a screen filled with movable pins that can be moved in or out by pressing an object onto the screen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeupert2011-143">[143]</a> The screen is lit from the side so that the pins cast shadows. The technique has been used to create animated films with a range of textural effects difficult to achieve with traditional cel animation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPilling1997204-144">[144]</a></li>

<li><a href="Sand_animation" title="Sand animation">Sand animation</a>: sand is moved around on a back- or front-<a href="Light" title="Light">lighted</a> piece of glass to create each frame for an animated film.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown20037-145">[145]</a> This creates an interesting effect when animated because of the light <a href="Contrast_(vision)" title="Contrast (vision)">contrast</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFurniss199830–33-146">[146]</a></li>

<li><a href="Flip_book" title="Flip book">Flip book</a>: a flip book (sometimes, especially in British English, called a flick book) is a book with a series of pictures that vary gradually from one page to the next, so that when the pages are turned rapidly, the pictures appear to animate by simulating motion or some other change.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne199822–24-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon19898–10-148">[148]</a> Flip books are often illustrated books for children,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998xiv-149">[149]</a> they also are geared towards adults and employ a series of photographs rather than drawings. Flip books are not always separate books, they appear as an added feature in ordinary books or magazines, often in the page corners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne199822–24-147">[147]</a> Software packages and websites are also available that convert digital video files into custom-made flip books.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2006203-150">[150]</a></li>

<li><a href="Character_animation" title="Character animation">Character animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-sketch" title="Multi-sketch">Multi-sketch</a> animation</li>

<li><a href="Special_effect" title="Special effect">Special effects</a> animation</li>

<li><a href="2.5D" title="2.5D">2.5D</a> Animation: A mix of 2D and 3D animation elements that emphasize the illusion of depth utilizing the pseudo-3D effect.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> During the 1970s, the term "2.5D" started to gain recognition.<a href="#cite_note-vfxapprentice.com-152">[152]</a> But its background comes from anime and manga during the 1920s where theatrical stage productions were popular.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Stage adaptations of well-liked anime series featured live performances by voice actors called 2.5D.<a href="#cite_note-vfxapprentice.com-152">[152]</a></li></ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;">

<ul><li><a href="War_film#Animated" title="War film">Animated war film</a></li>

<li><a href="Animation_department" title="Animation department">Animation department</a></li>

<li><a href="Animated_series" title="Animated series">Animated series</a></li>

<li><a href="Anime" title="Anime">Anime</a></li>

<li><a href="Architectural_animation" title="Architectural animation">Architectural animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Independent_animation" title="Independent animation">Independent animation</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Animation_Day" title="International Animation Day">International Animation Day</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Animated_Film_Association" title="International Animated Film Association">International Animated Film Association</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Tourn%C3%A9e_of_Animation" title="International Tournée of Animation">International Tournée of Animation</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_film-related_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of film-related topics">List of film-related topics</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_years_in_animation" title="List of years in animation">List of years in animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Motion_graphic_design" title="Motion graphic design">Motion graphic design</a></li>

<li><a href="Society_for_Animation_Studies" title="Society for Animation Studies">Society for Animation Studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Twelve_basic_principles_of_animation" title="Twelve basic principles of animation">Twelve basic principles of animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Wire-frame_model" title="Wire-frame model">Wire-frame model</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;">

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchan2013-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuchan2013_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuchan2013_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBuchan2013_1-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBuchan2013">Buchan 2013</a>.

</li>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionary.com/browse/animation">"The definition of animation on dictionary.com"</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://studio9.ie/journal/how-modern-animation-originated-from-live-and-stage-performances">"How Modern Animation Originated from Live and Stage Performances - studio9"</a>. studio9.ie. Retrieved 18 February 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Winsor-McCay">"Winsor McCay: American Animator"</a>. Britannica. 22 July 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon198928-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESolomon198928_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSolomon1989">Solomon 1989</a>, p. 28.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon198924-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESolomon198924_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSolomon1989">Solomon 1989</a>, p. 24.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon198934-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESolomon198934_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSolomon1989">Solomon 1989</a>, p. 34.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCart1991" class="citation news cs1">Cart, Michael (31 March 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/31/books/the-cat-with-the-killer-personality.html">"The Cat With the Killer Personality"</a>. <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140411005148/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/31/books/the-cat-with-the-killer-personality.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2014. Retrieved 30 December 2022.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Furniss_Page_107-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Furniss_Page_107_9-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFurniss2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Maureen_Furniss" title="Maureen Furniss">Furniss, Maureen</a> (2007). "Classical-era Disney Studio". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2005zgm.9">Art in Motion, Revised Edition</a> (2014 print-on-demand ed., based on 2007 revised ed.). New Barnet: John Libbey Publishing. pp. 107–132. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctt2005zgm.9">10.2307/j.ctt2005zgm.9</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780861966639</bdi>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2005zgm.9">j.ctt2005zgm.9</a>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1224213919">1224213919</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBarrier2003" class="citation book cs1">Barrier, Michael (2003). Hollywood Cartoons American Animation in Its Golden Age. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780199839223</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBendazzi199449-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBendazzi199449_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBendazzi1994">Bendazzi 1994</a>, p. 49.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.animafest.hr/en/2009/film/read_all/quirino_cristiani_the_mystery_of_the_first_animated_movies">"animafest.hr"</a>. www.animafest.hr. Retrieved 18 February 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLewis2020" class="citation web cs1">Lewis, Maria (15 December 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.acmi.net.au/stories-and-ideas/lasting-legacy-lotte-reiniger/">"The Lasting Legacy of Lotte Reiniger"</a>. <a href="Australian_Centre_for_the_Moving_Image" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Centre for the Moving Image">Australian Centre for the Moving Image</a>. Retrieved 8 August 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-snowwhite1-14"><a href="#cite_ref-snowwhite1_14-0">^</a> Total prior to 50th anniversary reissue: <cite id="CITEREFCulhane1987" class="citation news cs1">Culhane, John (12 July 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1987/07/12/movies/snow-white-at-50-undimmed-magic.html">"'Snow White' At 50: Undimmed Magic"</a>. <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140604200704/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/07/12/movies/snow-white-at-50-undimmed-magic.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2014. <q>By now, it has grossed about $330 million worldwide – so it remains one of the most popular films ever made.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-snowwhite2-15"><a href="#cite_ref-snowwhite2_15-0">^</a> 1987 and 1993 grosses from North America: <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140529094807/http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=releases&id=snowwhite.htm">"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs – Releases"</a>. <a href="Box_Office_Mojo" title="Box Office Mojo">Box Office Mojo</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=releases&id=snowwhite.htm">the original</a> on 29 May 2014. <q>1987 release – $46,594,212; 1993 release – $41,634,471</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cataroo.com/DBconts.html">"Don Bluth Contents"</a>. www.cataroo.com. Retrieved 14 September 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFerrier2022" class="citation web cs1">Ferrier, Aimee (7 October 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/first-movie-cgi-lead-character/">"What was the first movie to feature a CGI lead character?"</a>. Far Out Magazine. Retrieved 3 May 2025.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-first_digital_guinness-18"><a href="#cite_ref-first_digital_guinness_18-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-fully-digital-feature-film/">"First fully digital feature film"</a>. Guinness World Records. Guinness World Records Limited. Retrieved 27 December 2018.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Ness_2015_p197-19"><a href="#cite_ref-Ness_2015_p197_19-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNess2015" class="citation web cs1">Ness, Mari (17 December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reactormag.com/the-arrival-of-computer-animation-the-rescuers-down-under/">"The Arrival of Computer Animation: The Rescuers Down Under"</a>. Reactor Magazine. Retrieved 27 February 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Guinness_World_Records_2024_a420-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Guinness_World_Records_2024_a420_20-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/first-fully-digital-feature-film">"First fully digital feature film"</a>. Guinness World Records. 27 February 2024. Retrieved 27 February 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Allison_2022_u732-21"><a href="#cite_ref-Allison_2022_u732_21-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAllison2022" class="citation web cs1">Allison, Austin (23 January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collider.com/disney-pixar-animation-technologies-explained/#caps">"Disney and Pixar's Top 5 Most Innovative Animation Technologies, Explained"</a>. Collider. Retrieved 27 February 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFZorthian2015" class="citation magazine cs1">Zorthian, Julia (19 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/4118006/20-years-toy-story-pixar/">"How Toy Story Changed Movie History"</a>. TIME. Retrieved 29 January 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAmidi2015" class="citation web cs1"><a href="Amid_Amidi" title="Amid Amidi">Amidi, Amid</a> (1 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cartoonbrew.com/interviews/sergio-pablos-talks-about-his-stunning-hand-drawn-project-klaus-exclusive-113621.html">"Sergio Pablos Talks About His Stunning Hand-Drawn Project 'Klaus' [Exclusive]"</a>. <a href="Cartoon_Brew" title="Cartoon Brew">Cartoon Brew</a>. Retrieved 12 October 2019.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNetflix:_Behind_the_Streams2019" class="citation web cs1">Netflix: Behind the Streams (10 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FHxhr6KAaUw">"The Origins of Klaus"</a>. <a href="YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/FHxhr6KAaUw">Archived</a> from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2019.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBernstein2013" class="citation web cs1">Bernstein, Abbie (25 February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.assignmentx.com/2013/exclusive-interview-john-kahrs-kristina-reed-on-paperman/">"Exclusive Interview: John Kahrs & Kristina Reed on PAPERMAN"</a>. Assignment X. Midnight Productions, Inc. Retrieved 6 October 2013.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBreznican2012" class="citation magazine cs1">Breznican, Anthony (28 June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ew.com/article/2012/06/28/first-look-paperman/">"'Paperman' short to play before 'Wreck it Ralph'"</a>. Entertainment Weekly. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231224033559/https://ew.com/article/2012/06/28/first-look-paperman/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 December 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSarto2012" class="citation web cs1">Sarto, Dan (1 June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.awn.com/articles/short-films/inside-disney-s-new-animated-short-paperman">"Inside Disney's New Animated Short 'Paperman'"</a>. Animation World Network. Retrieved 5 June 2012.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.3dworldmag.com/2012/06/29/disneys-paperman-animated-short-fuses-cg-and-hand-drawn-techniques/">"Disney's Paperman animated short fuses CG and hand-drawn techniques"</a>. Retrieved 2 October 2014.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoard_of_Investments2009-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoard_of_Investments2009_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoard_of_Investments2009">Board of Investments 2009</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/817601/worldwide-animation-market-size/">"Global animation market value 2020-2030"</a>. Statista. Retrieved 14 September 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDuling2014-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcDuling2014_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcDuling2014">McDuling 2014</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMayorga2023" class="citation web cs1">Mayorga, Emilio (19 May 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.screendaily.com/features/how-spains-animation-sector-became-a-force-to-be-reckoned-with/5182259.article">"How Spain's animation sector became a force to be reckoned with"</a>. Screen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240124214632/https://www.screendaily.com/features/how-spains-animation-sector-became-a-force-to-be-reckoned-with/5182259.article">Archived</a> from the original on 24 January 2024. Retrieved 25 May 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMaina2023" class="citation web cs1">Maina, Margaret (17 May 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nation.africa/kenya/life-and-style/mynetwork/the-millennial-daring-to-change-animation-industry--4238068">"The millennial daring to change animation industry"</a>. Nation. Retrieved 25 May 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFConner2022" class="citation web cs1">Conner, Shawn (21 August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vancouversun.com/entertainment/local-arts/artists-wanted-in-vfx-animation-gaming-and-more">"Artists wanted — in VFX, animation, gaming and more"</a>. Vancouver Sun. Retrieved 25 May 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLee2019" class="citation web cs1">Lee, Tina (2 May 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academyofanimatedart.com/the-12-principles-of-animation-according-to-disney/">"What Are Disney's 12 Principles of Animation? (With Examples)"</a>. Academy of Animated Art. Retrieved 15 April 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bfi.org.uk/bfi-distribution/bfi-international-distribution/touring-programmes/history-british-animation">"A History of British Animation – international touring"</a>. BFI. Retrieved 6 March 2025.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lozierinstitute.org/movie-reviews/animal-farm-1954-1999/">"Animal Farm (1954, 1999)"</a>. Lozier Institute. Retrieved 6 March 2025.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ricekrispies.com/en_US/our-story.html">"Our History"</a>. Rice Krispies®. Retrieved 16 June 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFTaylor2019" class="citation web cs1">Taylor, Heather (10 June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://popicon.life/the-raid-bugs-characters-we-love-to-hate/">"The Raid Bugs: Characters We Love To Hate"</a>. PopIcon.life. Retrieved 16 June 2020.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thecine-files.com/new-screen-order/">"The Cine-Files » New Screen Order: How Video Games are Changing Cinema Interiority"</a>. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://disneyanafanclub.weebly.com/history.html">"History"</a>. Disneyana Fan Club | Preserving the Legacy of Walt Disney. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230426153040/https://disneyanafanclub.weebly.com/history.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 April 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://annieawards.org/">"51st Annual Annie Awards"</a>. annieawards.org. Retrieved 28 February 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://animationawards.eu/presentation/">"Introduction"</a>. European Animation Awards | Emile Awards. Retrieved 28 February 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141118120723/http://www.animamundi.com.br/">"Anima Mundi"</a>. 18 November 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.animamundi.com.br/">the original</a> on 18 November 2014. Retrieved 28 February 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCieply2009" class="citation news cs1">Cieply, Michael (24 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/25/movies/25oscars.html">"Academy Expands Best-Picture Pool to 10"</a>. <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998117-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998117_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, p. 117.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon1989274-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESolomon1989274_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSolomon1989">Solomon 1989</a>, p. 274.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2006151-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2006151_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2006">White 2006</a>, p. 151.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998339-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998339_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, p. 339.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECulhane199055-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECulhane199055_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCulhane1990">Culhane 1990</a>, p. 55.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon1989120-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESolomon1989120_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSolomon1989">Solomon 1989</a>, p. 120.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998100–01-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998100–01_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, pp. 100–01.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECanemaker1996xi–xii-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanemaker1996xi–xii_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanemaker1996xi–xii_53-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECanemaker1996xi–xii_53-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFCanemaker1996">Canemaker 1996</a>, pp. xi–xii.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson200794-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasson200794_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMasson2007">Masson 2007</a>, p. 94.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck200437-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck200437_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeck2004">Beck 2004</a>, p. 37.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200134-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams200134_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams200134_56-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2001">Williams 2001</a>, p. 34.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECulhane1990146-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECulhane1990146_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCulhane1990">Culhane 1990</a>, p. 146.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams200152–57-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams200152–57_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams200152–57_58-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams2001">Williams 2001</a>, pp. 52–57.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne199899–100-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne199899–100_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, pp. 99–100.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4_60-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4_60-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4_60-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4_60-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4_60-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4_60-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4_60-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarx20073–4_60-8">i</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarx2007">Marx 2007</a>, pp. 3–4.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeriDocter2024195-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeriDocter2024195_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeriDocter2024195_61-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPeriDocter2024">Peri & Docter 2024</a>, p. 195.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Hayes_Page_176-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hayes_Page_176_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hayes_Page_176_62-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hayes_Page_176_62-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFHayesWebster2013" class="citation book cs1">Hayes, Derek; Webster, Chris (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4z0qBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA176">Acting and Performance for Animation</a>. New York and London: Focal Press. p. 176. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781136135989</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite200631-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite200631_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2006">White 2006</a>, p. 31.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerman2003153-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckerman2003153_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckerman2003">Beckerman 2003</a>, p. 153.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomasJohnston1981277–79-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomasJohnston1981277–79_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomasJohnston1981">Thomas & Johnston 1981</a>, pp. 277–79.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998203-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998203_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, p. 203.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2006195–201-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2006195–201_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2006">White 2006</a>, pp. 195–201.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2006394-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2006394_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2006">White 2006</a>, p. 394.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECulhane1990296-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECulhane1990296_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECulhane1990296_69-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCulhane1990">Culhane 1990</a>, p. 296.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne199835–36,_52–53-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne199835–36,_52–53_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, pp. 35–36, 52–53.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon198963–65-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESolomon198963–65_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSolomon1989">Solomon 1989</a>, pp. 63–65.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerman200380-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckerman200380_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckerman2003">Beckerman 2003</a>, p. 80.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECulhane199071-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECulhane199071_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCulhane1990">Culhane 1990</a>, p. 71.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECulhane1990194–95-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECulhane1990194–95_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCulhane1990">Culhane 1990</a>, pp. 194–95.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne199825–26-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne199825–26_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, pp. 25–26.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerman2003142-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckerman2003142_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckerman2003">Beckerman 2003</a>, p. 142.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerman200354–55-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckerman200354–55_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckerman2003">Beckerman 2003</a>, pp. 54–55.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELedoux199724,_29-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELedoux199724,_29_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLedoux1997">Ledoux 1997</a>, p. 24, 29.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawsonPersons200482-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawsonPersons200482_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawsonPersons2004">Lawson & Persons 2004</a>, p. 82.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon1989241-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESolomon1989241_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSolomon1989">Solomon 1989</a>, p. 241.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELawsonPersons2004xxi-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawsonPersons2004xxi_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLawsonPersons2004">Lawson & Persons 2004</a>, p. xxi.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrafton1993158-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrafton1993158_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrafton1993">Crafton 1993</a>, p. 158.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998163–64-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998163–64_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, pp. 163–64.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998162–63-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998162–63_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, pp. 162–63.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck200418–19-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck200418–19_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeck2004">Beck 2004</a>, pp. 18–19.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon1989299-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESolomon1989299_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESolomon1989299_86-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSolomon1989">Solomon 1989</a>, p. 299.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998159-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998159_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998159_87-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, p. 159.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon1989171-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESolomon1989171_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSolomon1989">Solomon 1989</a>, p. 171.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998155–56-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998155–56_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, pp. 155–56.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck200470-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck200470_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeck2004">Beck 2004</a>, p. 70.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck200492–93-91"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck200492–93_91-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeck2004">Beck 2004</a>, pp. 92–93.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998150–151-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998150–151_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, pp. 150–151.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998151–54-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998151–54_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, pp. 151–54.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2004250-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2004250_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeck2004">Beck 2004</a>, p. 250.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFurniss199852–54-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFurniss199852–54_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFurniss1998">Furniss 1998</a>, pp. 52–54.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne199859–60-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne199859–60_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, pp. 59–60.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECulhane1990170–171-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECulhane1990170–171_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCulhane1990">Culhane 1990</a>, pp. 170–171.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarryhausenDalton20089–11-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarryhausenDalton20089–11_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarryhausenDalton2008">Harryhausen & Dalton 2008</a>, pp. 9–11.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Harryhausen_Dalton222–226-99"><a href="#cite_ref-Harryhausen_Dalton222–226_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarryhausenDalton2008">Harryhausen & Dalton 2008</a>, pp. 222–26

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Harryhausen_Dalton18-100"><a href="#cite_ref-Harryhausen_Dalton18_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarryhausenDalton2008">Harryhausen & Dalton 2008</a>, p. 18

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith198690-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith198690_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1986">Smith 1986</a>, p. 90.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatercutter2012-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatercutter2012_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatercutter2012">Watercutter 2012</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith198691–95-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith198691–95_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith1986">Smith 1986</a>, pp. 91–95.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne199851–57-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne199851–57_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, pp. 51–57.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998128-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998128_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, p. 128.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPaul2005357–63-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPaul2005357–63_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPaul2005">Paul 2005</a>, pp. 357–63.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman2014-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman2014_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerman2014">Herman 2014</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-AMPS-108"><a href="#cite_ref-AMPS_108-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100924224545/http://www.ampsvideo.com/film-talk/brick-films.htm">"Brick Films"</a>. Ampsvideo.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ampsvideo.com/film-talk/brick-films.htm">the original</a> on 24 September 2010. Retrieved 25 August 2013.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne199875–79-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne199875–79_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne199875–79_109-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, pp. 75–79.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESerenko2007-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESerenko2007_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSerenko2007">Serenko 2007</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson2007405-111"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasson2007405_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMasson2007">Masson 2007</a>, p. 405.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESerenko2007482-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESerenko2007482_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSerenko2007">Serenko 2007</a>, p. 482.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson2007165-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasson2007165_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMasson2007">Masson 2007</a>, p. 165.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESito201332,_70,_132-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESito201332,_70,_132_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSito2013">Sito 2013</a>, pp. 32, 70, 132.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPriebe200671–72-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPriebe200671–72_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPriebe2006">Priebe 2006</a>, pp. 71–72.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2006392-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2006392_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2006">White 2006</a>, p. 392.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoweSchnotz2008246–47-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoweSchnotz2008246–47_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoweSchnotz2008">Lowe & Schnotz 2008</a>, pp. 246–47.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson2007127–28-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasson2007127–28_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMasson2007">Masson 2007</a>, pp. 127–28.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeck2012-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeck2012_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeck2012">Beck 2012</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://astanahub.com/en/blog/optimizatsiia-spine-animatsii-sokhraniaem-nervy-i-vremia-ne-dopuskaia-bagov">"Spine Animation Optimization: Save Your Nerves and Time by Avoiding Bugs"</a>. astanahub.com. Retrieved 23 September 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson200788-121">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasson200788_121-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasson200788_121-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMasson2007">Masson 2007</a>, p. 88.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESito2013208-122"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESito2013208_122-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSito2013">Sito 2013</a>, p. 208.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson200778–80-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasson200778–80_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMasson2007">Masson 2007</a>, pp. 78–80.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESito2013285-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESito2013285_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSito2013">Sito 2013</a>, p. 285.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson200796-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasson200796_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMasson2007">Masson 2007</a>, p. 96.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoweSchnotz200892-126"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoweSchnotz200892_126-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoweSchnotz2008">Lowe & Schnotz 2008</a>, p. 92.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.animatormag.com/computer/cel-shading-hero-animation/">"Cel Shading: the Unsung Hero of Animation?"</a>. Animator Mag - Blog. Animator Mag. 17 December 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305090445/http://www.animatormag.com/computer/cel-shading-hero-animation/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 20 February 2016.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESito2013207–08-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESito2013207–08_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSito2013">Sito 2013</a>, pp. 207–08.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson2007204-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasson2007204_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMasson2007">Masson 2007</a>, p. 204.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParent200719-130"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParent200719_130-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParent2007">Parent 2007</a>, p. 19.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDonald_H._HouseJohn_C._Keyser2016" class="citation book cs1">Donald H. House; John C. Keyser (30 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ELXZDQAAQBAJ&q=animation">Foundations of Physically Based Modeling and Animation</a>. CRC Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-315-35581-8</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPilling1997249-132"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPilling1997249_132-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPilling1997">Pilling 1997</a>, p. 249.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Keefe2014-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Keefe2014_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2014">O'Keefe 2014</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParent200722–23-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParent200722–23_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParent2007">Parent 2007</a>, pp. 22–23.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenyon1998-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenyon1998_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKenyon1998">Kenyon 1998</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.magiclanternsociety.org/about-magic-lanterns/">"About Magic Lanterns | Magic Lantern Society"</a>. www.magiclanternsociety.org. Retrieved 24 April 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFsupport@baianat.com" class="citation web cs1">support@baianat.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.baianat.com/books/animation-revolution/hydrotechnics-animation">"Hydrotechnics animation"</a>. Baianat. Retrieved 1 May 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaberWalters20041979-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaberWalters20041979_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFaberWalters2004">Faber & Walters 2004</a>, p. 1979.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPilling1997222-139"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPilling1997222_139-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPilling1997">Pilling 1997</a>, p. 222.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFStaff2023" class="citation web cs1">Staff, Animation Obsessive (19 May 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://animationobsessive.substack.com/p/the-cow-paint-in-motion">"'The Cow': Paint in Motion"</a>. Animation Obsessive. Retrieved 1 May 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarbone2010-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarbone2010_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCarbone2010">Carbone 2010</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://culture.pl/en/artist/piotr-dumala">"Piotr Dumała"</a>. Culture.pl. Retrieved 1 May 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeupert2011-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeupert2011_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeupert2011">Neupert 2011</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPilling1997204-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPilling1997204_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPilling1997">Pilling 1997</a>, p. 204.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown20037-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown20037_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrown2003">Brown 2003</a>, p. 7.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFurniss199830–33-146"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFurniss199830–33_146-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFurniss1998">Furniss 1998</a>, pp. 30–33.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne199822–24-147">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne199822–24_147-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne199822–24_147-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, pp. 22–24.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESolomon19898–10-148"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESolomon19898–10_148-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSolomon1989">Solomon 1989</a>, pp. 8–10.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998xiv-149"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaybourne1998xiv_149-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLaybourne1998">Laybourne 1998</a>, p. xiv.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2006203-150"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite2006203_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWhite2006">White 2006</a>, p. 203.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDigitalnomads2023" class="citation web cs1">Digitalnomads (24 October 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medium.com/@digitalnomads62/what-is-2-5d-animation-554e1e4110a3">"What is 2.5D animation?"</a>. Medium. Retrieved 12 April 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-vfxapprentice.com-152">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vfxapprentice.com_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vfxapprentice.com_152-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vfxapprentice.com/blog/what-is-2-5d-animation-games">"What is 2.5D? The Look Dominating Animation and Video Games"</a>. www.vfxapprentice.com. Retrieved 17 April 2024.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://artsandculture.google.com/story/what-is-2-5-dimensional-2-5d-culture/YgUBMKSPP6O3LQ">"What is 2.5-Dimensional (2.5D) Culture?"</a>. Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved 17 April 2024.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Journal_articles">Journal articles</h4></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em">

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1993" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, Joseph and Barbara (Spring 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091124182503/http://www.uca.edu/org/ccsmi/ccsmi/classicwork/Myth%20Revisited.htm">"Journal of Film and Video"</a>. The Myth of Persistence of Vision Revisited. 45 (1): 3–13. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uca.edu/org/ccsmi/ccsmi/classicwork/Myth%20Revisited.htm">the original</a> on 24 November 2009.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSerenko2007" class="citation journal cs1">Serenko, Alexander (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Animation_Scale.pdf">"Computers in Human Behavior"</a> (PDF). The Development of an Instrument to Measure the Degree of Animation Predisposition of Agent Users. 23 (1): 478–95. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131019154525/http://www.aserenko.com/papers/Serenko_Animation_Scale.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 19 October 2013.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Books">Books</h4></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBaer1983" class="citation book cs1">Baer, Eva (1983). Metalwork in Medieval Islamic Art. <a href="State_University_of_New_York_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York Press">State University of New York Press</a>. pp. 58, 86, 143, 151, 176, 201, 226, 243, 292, 304. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-87395-602-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBeck2004" class="citation book cs1">Beck, Jerry (2004). Animation Art: From Pencil to Pixel, the History of Cartoon, Anime & CGI. Fulhamm London: Flame Tree Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-84451-140-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBeckerman2003" class="citation book cs1">Beckerman, Howard (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/animationwholest00beck">Animation: The Whole Story</a>. Allworth Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-58115-301-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBendazzi1994" class="citation book cs1">Bendazzi, Giannalberto (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cartoons00gian">Cartoons: One Hundred Years of Cinema Animation</a>. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-253-20937-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBuchan2013" class="citation book cs1">Buchan, Suzanne (2013). Pervasive Animation. New York and London: Routledge. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-415-80723-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCanemaker1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="John_Canemaker" title="John Canemaker">Canemaker, John</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HBgRAQAAMAAJ&q=individualistic">Before The Animation Begins: The Art and Lives of Disney Inspirational Sketch Artists</a>. New York: Hyperion. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7868-6152-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCanemaker2005" class="citation book cs1">Canemaker, John (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/winsormccayhisli00cane">Winsor McCay: His Life and Art</a> (Revised ed.). Abrams Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8109-5941-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCotte2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Olivier_Cotte" title="Olivier Cotte">Cotte, Olivier</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Secrets-of-Oscar-winning-Animation-Behind-the-scenes-of-13-classic-short/Cotte/p/book/9780240520704">Secrets of Oscar-winning Animation: Behind the scenes of 13 classic short animations</a>. Focal Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0240520704</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCrafton1993" class="citation book cs1">Crafton, Donald (1993). Before Mickey: The Animated Film 1898–1928. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-226-11667-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCulhane1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Shamus_Culhane" title="Shamus Culhane">Culhane, Shamus</a> (1990). Animation: Script to Screen. St. Martin's Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-312-05052-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDrazin2011" class="citation book cs1">Drazin, Charles (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/frenchcinema0000draz">The Faber Book of French Cinema</a>. Faber & Faber. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-571-21849-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFaberWalters2004" class="citation book cs1">Faber, Liz; Walters, Helen (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/animationunlimit0000fabe">Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Films Since 1940</a>. London: Laurence King Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-85669-346-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFinkielman2004" class="citation book cs1">Finkielman, Jorge (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/filmindustryinar00fink/page/20">The Film Industry in Argentina: An Illustrated Cultural History</a>. North Carolina: McFarland. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/filmindustryinar00fink/page/20">20</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7864-1628-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFurniss1998" class="citation book cs1">Furniss, Maureen (1998). Art in Motion: Animation Aesthetics. Indiana University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-86462-039-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGodfreyJackson1974" class="citation book cs1">Godfrey, Bob; Jackson, Anna (1974). The Do-It-Yourself Film Animation Book. BBC Publications. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-563-10829-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHarryhausenDalton2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Ray_Harryhausen" title="Ray Harryhausen">Harryhausen, Ray</a>; <a href="Tony_Dalton" title="Tony Dalton">Dalton, Tony</a> (2008). A Century of Model Animation: From Méliès to Aardman. Aurum Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8230-9980-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHerman2014" class="citation book cs1">Herman, Sarah (2014). Brick Flicks: A Comprehensive Guide to Making Your Own Stop-Motion LEGO Movies. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-62914-649-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLawsonPersons2004" class="citation book cs1">Lawson, Tim; Persons, Alisa (2004). <a href="The_Magic_Behind_the_Voices" title="The Magic Behind the Voices">The Magic Behind the Voices</a> [A Who's Who of Cartoon Voice Actors]. University Press of Mississippi. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-57806-696-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLaybourne1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Kit_Laybourne" title="Kit Laybourne">Laybourne, Kit</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/animationbookcom00layb">The Animation Book: A Complete Guide to Animated Filmmaking – from Flip-books to Sound Cartoons to 3-D Animation</a>. New York: Three Rivers Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-517-88602-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLedoux1997" class="citation book cs1">Ledoux, Trish (1997). Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Film Directory and Resource Guide. Tiger Mountain Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-9649542-5-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLoweSchnotz2008" class="citation book cs1">Lowe, Richard; Schnotz, Wolfgang, eds. (2008). Learning with Animation. Research implications for design. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-85189-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMarx2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Christy_Marx" title="Christy Marx">Marx, Christy</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m6NPkq_cYVgC">Writing for Animation, Comics, and Games</a>. Burlington, Massachusetts: Focal Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781136144455</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMasson2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Terrence_Masson" title="Terrence Masson">Masson, Terrence</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780977871001">CG101: A Computer Graphics Industry Reference</a>. Unique and personal histories of early computer animation production, plus a comprehensive foundation of the industry for all reading levels. Williamstown, MA: Digital Fauxtography. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-9778710-0-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1962" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph (1962). "Science and Civilization in China". Physics and Physical Technology. Vol. IV. Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNeupert2011" class="citation book cs1">Neupert, Richard (2011). French Animation History. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4443-3836-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFParent2007" class="citation book cs1">Parent, Rick (2007). Computer Animation: Algorithms & Techniques. Ohio State University: Morgan Kaufmann. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-12-532000-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPaul2005" class="citation book cs1">Paul, Joshua (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/digitalvideohack00paul_0">Digital Video Hacks</a>. O'Reilly Media. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-596-00946-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPeriDocter2024" class="citation book cs1">Peri, Don; <a href="Pete_Docter" title="Pete Docter">Docter, Pete</a> (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ovdZEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA195">Directing at Disney: The Original Directors of Walt's Animated Films</a>. Los Angeles: Disney Editions. p. 195. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781484755747</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPilling1997" class="citation book cs1">Pilling, Jayne (1997). Society of Animation Studies (ed.). A Reader in Animation Studies. Indiana University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-86462-000-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPriebe2006" class="citation book cs1">Priebe, Ken A. (2006). The Art of Stop-Motion Animation. Thompson Course Technology. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-59863-244-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRojasChow2013" class="citation book cs1">Rojas, Carlos; Chow, Eileen (2013). The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Cinemas. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-998844-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSammond2015" class="citation book cs1">Sammond, Nicholas (27 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/188">Birth of an Industry: Blackface Minstrelsy and the Rise of American Animation</a>. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9780822375784">10.1515/9780822375784</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780822358527</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8605897837">8605897837</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSito2013" class="citation book cs1">Sito, Tom (2013). Moving Innovation: A History of Computer Animation. Massachusetts: <a href="MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-262-01909-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSolomon1989" class="citation book cs1">Solomon, Charles (1989). Enchanted Drawings: The History of Animation. New York: Random House, Inc. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-394-54684-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFThomas1958" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Bob (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pw3WAAAAMAAJ">Walt Disney, the Art of Animation: The Story of the Disney Studio Contribution to a New Art</a>. Simon and Schuster.</cite> <code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (help)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFThomasJohnston1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Frank_Thomas_(animator)" title="Frank Thomas (animator)">Thomas, Frank</a>; <a href="Ollie_Johnston" title="Ollie Johnston">Johnston, Ollie</a> (1981). <a href="Disney_Animation%3A_The_Illusion_of_Life" title="Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life">Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life</a>. Abbeville Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-89659-233-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSmith1986" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Thomas G. (1986). Industrial Light & Magic: The Art of Special Effects. New York: Ballantine Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-345-32263-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWhite2006" class="citation book cs1">White, Tony (2006). Animation from Pencils to Pixels: Classical Techniques for the Digital Animator. Milton Park: Taylor & Francis. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-240-80670-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Richard_Williams_(animator)" title="Richard Williams (animator)">Williams, Richard</a> (2001). <a href="The_Animator's_Survival_Kit" title="The Animator's Survival Kit">The Animator's Survival Kit</a>. Faber and Faber. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-571-20228-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFZielinski1999" class="citation book cs1">Zielinski, Siegfried (1999). Audiovisions: Cinema and Television as Entr'actes in History. Amsterdam University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-5356-303-8</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Online_sources">Online sources</h4></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAmidi2011" class="citation web cs1"><a href="Amid_Amidi" title="Amid Amidi">Amidi, Amid</a> (2 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cartoonbrew.com/feature-film/ny-film-critics-didnt-like-a-single-animated-film-this-year-53464.html">"NY Film Critics Didn't like a Single Animated Film This Year"</a>. Cartoon Brew. Retrieved 19 February 2016.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBall2008" class="citation magazine cs1">Ball, Ryan (12 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.animationmagazine.net/features/oldest-animation-discovered-in-iran/">"Oldest Animation Discovered in Iran"</a>. Animation Magazine. Retrieved 15 March 2016.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBeck2012" class="citation web cs1">Beck, Jerry (2 July 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cartoonbrew.com/cgi/a-little-more-about-disneys-paperman-63782.html">"A Little More About Disney's "Paperman""</a>. Cartoon Brew.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBendazzi1996" class="citation web cs1">Bendazzi, Giannalberto (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.awn.com/mag/issue1.4/articles/bendazzi1.4.html">"The Untold Story of Argentina's Pioneer Animator"</a>. Animation World Network. Retrieved 29 April 2016.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBoard_of_Investments2009" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121019232801/http://www.boi.gov.ph/pdf/valuepropositions/Animation/Animation.pdf">"Animation"</a> (PDF). boi.gov.ph. Board of Investments. November 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boi.gov.ph/pdf/valuepropositions/Animation/Animation.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 October 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2012.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBrown2003" class="citation web cs1">Brown, Margery (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080307025951/http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf">"Experimental Animation Techniques"</a> (PDF). Olympia, WA: Evergreen State College. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 March 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2005.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCarbone2010" class="citation magazine cs1">Carbone, Ken (24 February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fastcompany.com/1561390/stone-age-animation-digital-world-william-kentridge-moma">"Stone-Age Animation in a Digital World: William Kentridge at MoMA"</a>. Fast Company. Retrieved 7 March 2016.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKenyon1998" class="citation web cs1">Kenyon, Heather (1 February 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.awn.com/animationworld/howd-they-do-stop-motion-secrets-revealed">"How'd They Do That?: Stop-Motion Secrets Revealed"</a>. Animation World Network. Retrieved 2 March 2016.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNagel2008" class="citation web cs1">Nagel, Jan (21 May 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.awn.com/animationworld/gender-media-females-dont-rule">"Gender in Media: Females Don't Rule"</a>. Animation World Network. Retrieved 3 March 2016.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMcDuling2014" class="citation news cs1">McDuling, John (3 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2014/07/the-completely-serious-decline-of-the-hollywood-comedy/373914/">"Hollywood Is Giving Up on Comedy"</a>. The Atlantic. The Atlantic Monthly Group. Retrieved 20 July 2014.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMcLaughlin2001" class="citation web cs1">McLaughlin, Dan (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091119055944/http://animation.filmtv.ucla.edu/NewSite/WebPages/Histories.html">"A Rather Incomplete But Still Fascinating"</a>. Film TV. UCLA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://animation.filmtv.ucla.edu/NewSite/WebPages/Histories.html">the original</a> on 19 November 2009. Retrieved 12 February 2013.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFO'Keefe2014" class="citation web cs1">O'Keefe, Matt (11 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themeparktourist.com/features/20141110/29600/6-major-innovations-sprung-heads-disney-imagineers">"6 Major Innovations That Sprung from the Heads of Disney Imagineers"</a>. Theme Park Tourist. Retrieved 9 March 2016.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWatercutter2012" class="citation magazine cs1">Watercutter, Angela (24 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/2012/05/phil-tippett-feature/">"35 Years After Star Wars, Effects Whiz Phil Tippett Is Slowly Crafting a Mad God"</a>. Wired. Retrieved 6 February 2016.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFZohn2010" class="citation magazine cs1">Zohn, Patricia (28 February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2010/03/disney-animation-girls-201003">"Coloring the Kingdom"</a>. <a href="Vanity_Fair_(magazine)" title="Vanity Fair (magazine)">Vanity Fair</a>. Retrieved 7 December 2015.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAdam_Mickiewicz_Institute2012" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://culture.pl/en/artist/wladyslaw-starewicz">"Władysław Starewicz – Biography"</a>. culture.pl. Adam Mickiewicz Institute. 16 April 2012. Retrieved 9 February 2016.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .infobox .side-box{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sparetimelabs.com/animato/animato/cartoon/cartoon.html">The making of an 8-minute cartoon short</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091001071111/http://www.nfb.ca/film/animando_english/">"Animando"</a>, a 12-minute film demonstrating 10 different animation techniques (and teaching how to use them) (archived 1 October 2009).</li></ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Animation_topics352" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div id="Animation_topics352" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Azerbaijani_animation" title="Azerbaijani animation">Azerbaijan</a></li>

<li><a href="Bangladeshi_animation" title="Bangladeshi animation">Bangladesh</a></li>

<li><a href="Bhutanese_animation" title="Bhutanese animation">Bhutan</a></li>

<li><a href="Brazilian_animation" title="Brazilian animation">Brazil</a></li>

<li><a href="British_animation" title="British animation">United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Canadian_animation" title="History of Canadian animation">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_animation" title="Chinese animation">China</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_Chinese_animation" title="History of Chinese animation">history</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Czech_animation" title="Czech animation">Czechia</a></li>

<li><a href="Estonian_animation" title="Estonian animation">Estonia</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_French_animation" title="History of French animation">France</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Hungarian_animation" title="History of Hungarian animation">Hungary</a></li>

<li><a href="Indian_animation_industry" title="Indian animation industry">India</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_animation_in_India" title="History of animation in India">history</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anime" title="Anime">Japan</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_anime" title="History of anime">history</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Korea

<ul><li><a href="North_Korean_animation" title="North Korean animation">North</a></li>

<li><a href="South_Korean_animation" title="South Korean animation">South</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Korean_animation" title="History of Korean animation">history</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Latvian_animation" title="Latvian animation">Latvia</a></li>

<li><a href="Malaysian_animation" title="Malaysian animation">Malaysia</a></li>

<li><a href="Mexican_animation" title="Mexican animation">Mexico</a></li>

<li><a href="North_Korean_animation" title="North Korean animation">North Korea</a></li>

<li><a href="Filipino_animation" class="mw-redirect" title="Filipino animation">Philippines</a></li>

<li><a href="Portuguese_animation" title="Portuguese animation">Portugal</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanian_animation" title="Romanian animation">Romania</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Russian_animation" title="History of Russian animation">Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="Animation_industry_in_South_Africa" title="Animation industry in South Africa">South Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Spanish_animation" title="Spanish animation">Spain</a></li>

<li><a href="Taiwanese_animation" title="Taiwanese animation">Taiwan</a></li>

<li><a href="Thai_animation" title="Thai animation">Thailand</a></li>

<li><a href="Ukrainian_animation" title="Ukrainian animation">Ukraine</a></li>

<li><a href="American_animation" title="American animation">United States</a>

<ul><li><a href="Animation_in_the_United_States_during_the_silent_era" title="Animation in the United States during the silent era">Silent Era</a></li>

<li><a href="Golden_age_of_American_animation" title="Golden age of American animation">The Golden Age</a></li>

<li><a href="World_War_II_and_American_animation" title="World War II and American animation">World War II</a></li>

<li><a href="Animation_in_the_United_States_in_the_television_era" title="Animation in the United States in the television era">Early TV broadcast era</a></li>

<li><a href="Modern_animation_in_the_United_States" title="Modern animation in the United States">Modern TV cable and streaming era</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vietnamese_animation" title="Vietnamese animation">Vietnam</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Industry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Animator" title="Animator">Animator</a>

<li><a href="Animation_department" title="Animation department">Animation department</a></li>

<li><a href="Animation_director" title="Animation director">Animation director</a></li>

<li><a href="Story_artist" title="Story artist">Story artist</a></li>

<li><a href="Animation_studio" title="Animation studio">Animation studios</a>

<li><a href="Animation_database" title="Animation database">Animation database</a></li>

<li><a href="Art_pipeline" title="Art pipeline">Art pipeline</a></li>

<li>Biologist simulators</li>

<li>Animation film festivals

<ul><li><a href="List_of_international_animation_festivals" title="List of international animation festivals">international</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_regional_animation_festivals" title="List of regional animation festivals">regional</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_highest-grossing_animated_films" title="List of highest-grossing animated films">Highest-grossing films</a> (<a href="List_of_highest-grossing_openings_for_animated_films" title="List of highest-grossing openings for animated films">Opening weekends</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Outsourcing_of_animation" title="Outsourcing of animation">Outsourcing</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Animation_Day" title="International Animation Day">International Animation Day</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Films

<ul><li><a href="List_of_computer-animated_films" title="List of computer-animated films">Computer-animated</a></li>

<li><a href="Lists_of_animated_films" title="Lists of animated films">Feature-length</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_lost_or_unfinished_animated_films" title="List of lost or unfinished animated films">Lost or unfinished</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_animated_package_films" title="List of animated package films">Package</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_animated_short_films" title="List of animated short films">Short</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_animated_short_series" class="mw-redirect" title="List of animated short series">Short series</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_stop_motion_films" title="List of stop motion films">Stop-motion</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_adult_animated_feature_films" title="List of adult animated feature films">Adult animated films</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_children's_animated_films" title="List of children's animated films">Children's animated films</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Animated_series" title="Animated series">Series</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_adult_animated_television_series" title="List of adult animated television series">Adult animated</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_children's_animated_television_series" title="List of children's animated television series">Children's animated</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_computer-animated_television_series" title="List of computer-animated television series">Computer-animated</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_animated_direct-to-video_series" title="List of animated direct-to-video series">Direct-to-video</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Flash_animated_television_series" title="List of Flash animated television series">Flash</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_animated_Internet_series" title="List of animated Internet series">Internet</a></li>

<li><a href="Lists_of_animated_television_series" title="Lists of animated television series">Television</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Traditional_animation" title="Traditional animation">Traditional</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Barrier-grid_animation_and_stereography" title="Barrier-grid animation and stereography">Barrier-grid and stereography</a></li>

<li><a href="Limited_animation" title="Limited animation">Limited animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Masking_(art)" title="Masking (art)">Masking</a></li>

<li><a href="Rotoscoping" title="Rotoscoping">Rotoscoping</a></li>

<li><a href="Exposure_sheet" title="Exposure sheet">Exposure sheet</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Stop_motion" title="Stop motion">Stop motion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Claymation" title="Claymation">Claymation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Clay_painting" title="Clay painting">clay painting</a>, <a href="Strata-cut_animation" title="Strata-cut animation">strata-cut</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cutout_animation" title="Cutout animation">Cutout</a> (<a href="Silhouette_animation" title="Silhouette animation">silhouette</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Graphic_animation" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphic animation">Graphic</a></li>

<li><a href="Model_animation" title="Model animation">Model</a>

<ul><li><a href="Go_motion" title="Go motion">go motion</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Object_animation" title="Object animation">Object</a>

<ul><li><a href="Brickfilm" title="Brickfilm">Brickfilm</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pixilation" title="Pixilation">Pixilation</a></li>

<li><a href="Puppetoons" title="Puppetoons">Puppetoons</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Computer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="2D_computer_graphics" title="2D computer graphics">2D</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Flash_animation" title="Flash animation">Flash</a></li>

<li><a href="PowerPoint_animation" title="PowerPoint animation">PowerPoint</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-sketch" title="Multi-sketch">Multi-sketch</a></li>

<li><a href="Onion_skinning" title="Onion skinning">Onion skinning</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="3D_computer_graphics" title="3D computer graphics">3D</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Cel_shading" title="Cel shading">Cel shading</a></li>

<li><a href="Crowd_simulation" title="Crowd simulation">Crowd</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_facial_animation" title="Computer facial animation">Facial animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Morph_target_animation" title="Morph target animation">Morph target</a></li>

<li><a href="Motion_capture" title="Motion capture">Motion capture</a>

<ul><li><a href="Facial_motion_capture" title="Facial motion capture">facial</a></li>

<li><a href="Finger_tracking" title="Finger tracking">hand tracking</a></li>

<li><a href="Eye_tracking" title="Eye tracking">eye tracking</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Non-photorealistic_rendering" title="Non-photorealistic rendering">Non-photorealistic rendering</a></li>

<li><a href="Physically_based_animation" title="Physically based animation">Physically based animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Procedural_animation" title="Procedural animation">Procedural</a></li>

<li><a href="Skeletal_animation" title="Skeletal animation">Skeletal</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_cinematography" title="Virtual cinematography">Virtual cinematography</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Puppetry" title="Puppetry">Puppetry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Puppet" title="Puppet">Traditional puppetry</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_puppetry" title="Digital puppetry">Digital puppetry</a>

<ul><li><a href="Machinima" title="Machinima">Machinima</a></li>

<li><a href="Aniforms" title="Aniforms">Aniforms</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_human" title="Virtual human">Virtual human</a></li>

<li><a href="Supermarionation" title="Supermarionation">Supermarionation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mechanics" title="Mechanics">Mechanical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Animatronics" title="Animatronics">Animatronics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Audio-Animatronics" title="Audio-Animatronics">Audio-Animatronics</a></li>

<li><a href="Linear_alternator" title="Linear alternator">Linear Animation Generator</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Direct_manipulation_animation" title="Direct manipulation animation">Direct manipulation animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanoid_animation" title="Humanoid animation">Humanoid animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Idle_animation" title="Idle animation">Idle animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ink-wash_animation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ink-wash animation">Ink-wash animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Magic_lantern" title="Magic lantern">Magic Lantern</a></li>

<li><a href="Scanimate" title="Scanimate">Scanimate</a></li>

<li><a href="Shadowmation" title="Shadowmation">Shadowmation</a></li>

<li><a href="Squigglevision" title="Squigglevision">Squigglevision</a></li>

<li><a href="Whiteboard_animation" title="Whiteboard animation">Whiteboard animation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Blocking_(animation)" title="Blocking (animation)">Blocking</a></li>

<li><a href="Character_animation" title="Character animation">Character animation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Model_sheet" title="Model sheet">model sheet</a></li>

<li><a href="Walk_cycle" title="Walk cycle">walk cycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Off-model" title="Off-model">off-model</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Chuckimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chuckimation">Chuckimation</a></li>

<li><a href="Drawn-on-film_animation" title="Drawn-on-film animation">Drawn-on-film</a></li>

<li><a href="Charcoal" title="Charcoal">Erasure animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">Hydrotechnics</a></li>

<li><a href="Inbetweening" title="Inbetweening">Inbetweening</a></li>

<li><a href="Morphing" title="Morphing">Morphing</a></li>

<li><a href="Paint-on-glass_animation" title="Paint-on-glass animation">Paint-on-glass</a></li>

<li><a href="Pinscreen_animation" title="Pinscreen animation">Pinscreen</a></li>

<li><a href="Pixel_artist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pixel artist">Pixel art</a></li>

<li><a href="Straight_ahead_animation" title="Straight ahead animation">Straight ahead</a></li>

<li><a href="Rubber_hose_animation" title="Rubber hose animation">Rubber hose</a></li>

<li><a href="Special_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Special effects">Special effects</a></li>

<li><a href="Syncro-Vox" title="Syncro-Vox">Syncro-Vox</a></li>

<li><a href="Zoetrope" title="Zoetrope">Zoetrope</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Variants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Experimental_animation" title="Experimental animation">Abstract animation</a> (<a href="Visual_music" title="Visual music">visual music</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Adult_animation" title="Adult animation">Adult animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Animated_cartoon" class="mw-redirect" title="Animated cartoon">Animated cartoon</a></li>

<li><a href="Animated_sitcom" title="Animated sitcom">Animated sitcom</a></li>

<li><a href="Animated_documentary" title="Animated documentary">Animated documentary</a></li>

<li><a href="Anime" title="Anime">Anime</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anime-influenced_animation" title="Anime-influenced animation">influenced</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Educational_animation" title="Educational animation">Educational animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Erotic_animation" class="mw-redirect" title="Erotic animation">Erotic animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Independent_animation" title="Independent animation">Independent animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Instructional_animation" class="mw-redirect" title="Instructional animation">Instructional animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_newscaster" title="Virtual newscaster">Virtual newscaster</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="History_of_animation" title="History of animation">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Early_history_of_animation" title="Early history of animation">Early history</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_computer_animation" title="History of computer animation">History of computer animation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_computer_animation_in_film_and_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of computer animation in film and television">timeline</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Animation_music" title="Animation music">Animation music</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bouncing_ball_(music)" title="Bouncing ball (music)">Bouncing ball</a></li>

<li><a href="Mickey_Mousing" title="Mickey Mousing">Mickey Mousing</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Key_frame" title="Key frame">Key frame</a></li>

<li><a href="Character_animation" title="Character animation">Character animation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Model_sheet" title="Model sheet">model sheet</a></li>

<li><a href="Walk_cycle" title="Walk cycle">walk cycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Off-model" title="Off-model">off-model</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Creature_animation" title="Creature animation">Creature animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Twelve_basic_principles_of_animation" title="Twelve basic principles of animation">Twelve basic principles</a></li>

<li><a href="Motion_comic" title="Motion comic">Motion comic</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_films_with_live_action_and_animation" title="List of films with live action and animation">Films with live action and animation</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_highest-grossing_live-action/animated_films" title="List of highest-grossing live-action/animated films">highest grossing</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cartoon" title="Cartoon">Cartoon</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cartoon_physics" title="Cartoon physics">physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Cartoon_violence" title="Cartoon violence">violence</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_most_expensive_animated_films" title="List of most expensive animated films">Most expensive animated films</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_animated_films_by_box_office_admissions" title="List of animated films by box office admissions">List of animated films by box office admissions</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_animated_television_series_by_episode_count" title="List of animated television series by episode count">List of animated television series by episode count</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="Portal%3AAnimation" title="Portal:Animation">Portal</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_animation" title="Outline of animation">Outline</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Film_genres257" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Film_genres257" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Film" title="Film">Film</a> <a href="Film_genre" title="Film genre">genres</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By style</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Action_film" title="Action film">Action</a>

<ul><li><a href="Heroic_bloodshed" title="Heroic bloodshed">Heroic bloodshed</a></li>

<li><a href="Hong_Kong_action_cinema" title="Hong Kong action cinema">Hong Kong action</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Adventure_film" title="Adventure film">Adventure</a></li>

<li><a href="Biographical_film" title="Biographical film">Biographical</a></li>

<li><a href="Comedy_film" title="Comedy film">Comedy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Action_comedy" title="Action comedy">Action</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_comedy" title="Black comedy">Black</a></li>

<li><a href="Commedia_all'italiana" title="Commedia all'italiana">Commedia all'italiana</a>

<li><a href="Comedy_drama" title="Comedy drama">Dramedy</a></li>

<li><a href="Gross_out" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross out">Gross out</a></li>

<li><a href="Comedy_horror" title="Comedy horror">Horror</a></li>

<li><a href="Parody_film" title="Parody film">Parody</a></li>

<li><a href="Comedy_of_remarriage" title="Comedy of remarriage">Remarriage</a></li>

<li><a href="Romantic_comedy" title="Romantic comedy">Romantic</a></li>

<li><a href="Screwball_comedy" title="Screwball comedy">Screwball</a></li>

<li><a href="Silent_comedy" title="Silent comedy">Silent</a></li>

<li><a href="Slapstick_film" title="Slapstick film">Slapstick</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cyberpunk" title="Cyberpunk">Cyberpunk</a>

<ul><li><a href="Japanese_cyberpunk" title="Japanese cyberpunk">Japanese</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Documentary_film" title="Documentary film">Documentary</a>

<ul><li><a href="Animated_documentary" title="Animated documentary">Animated</a></li>

<li><a href="City_symphony" title="City symphony">City symphony</a></li>

<li><a href="Direct_cinema" title="Direct cinema">Direct cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Docudrama" title="Docudrama">Docudrama</a></li>

<li><a href="Mockumentary" title="Mockumentary">Mockumentary</a></li>

<li><a href="Mondo_film" title="Mondo film">Mondo</a></li>

<li><a href="Pseudo-documentary" title="Pseudo-documentary">Pseudo</a></li>

<li><a href="Travel_documentary" title="Travel documentary">Travel</a></li>

<li><a href="Video_essay" title="Video essay">Video essay</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Drama_(film_and_television)" title="Drama (film and television)">Drama</a>

<ul><li><a href="Calligrafismo" title="Calligrafismo">Calligrafismo</a></li>

<li><a href="Comedy_drama" title="Comedy drama">Dramedy</a></li>

<li><a href="Historical_drama" title="Historical drama">Historical</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_drama" title="Legal drama">Legal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sex_in_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex in film">Erotic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cinema_of_Hong_Kong#Category_III_films" title="Cinema of Hong Kong">Category III films</a></li>

<li><a href="Commedia_sexy_all'italiana" title="Commedia sexy all'italiana">Commedia sexy all'italiana</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexploitation_film" title="Sexploitation film">Sexploitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Erotic_thriller" title="Erotic thriller">Thriller</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Educational_film" title="Educational film">Educational</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_guidance_film" title="Social guidance film">Social guidance</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Sword-and-sandal" title="Sword-and-sandal">Sword-and-sandal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_film" title="Experimental film">Experimental</a></li>

<li><a href="Exploitation_film" title="Exploitation film">Exploitation</a>

<ul><li>see Exploitation film template</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Fantasy_film" title="Fantasy film">Fantasy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Fantasy_comedy" title="Fantasy comedy">Comedy</a></li>

<li><a href="Contemporary_fantasy" title="Contemporary fantasy">Contemporary</a></li>

<li><a href="Fantastique" title="Fantastique">Fantastique</a></li>

<li><a href="Historical_fantasy" title="Historical fantasy">Historical</a></li>

<li><a href="Magic_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Magic realism">Magic realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_fantasy" title="Science fantasy">Science</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Gothic_film" title="Gothic film">Gothic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gothic_romance_film" title="Gothic romance film">Romance</a></li>

<li><a href="Southern_Gothic" title="Southern Gothic">Southern</a></li>

<li><a href="Gothic_science_fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic science fiction">Space</a></li>

<li><a href="Suburban_Gothic" title="Suburban Gothic">Suburban</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_Gothic" title="Urban Gothic">Urban</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Horror_film" title="Horror film">Horror</a>

<ul><li><a href="Art_horror" title="Art horror">Arthouse</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_horror" title="Black horror">Black</a></li>

<li><a href="Cannibal_film" title="Cannibal film">Cannibal</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_horror_film" title="Chinese horror film">Chinese horror</a></li>

<li><a href="Christmas_horror" title="Christmas horror">Christmas horror</a></li>

<li><a href="Comedy_horror" title="Comedy horror">Comedy</a></li>

<li><a href="Fantastique" title="Fantastique">Fantastique</a></li>

<li><a href="Found_footage_(film_technique)" title="Found footage (film technique)">Found footage</a></li>

<li><a href="German_underground_horror" title="German underground horror">German underground</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_ghost_films" title="List of ghost films">Ghost</a></li>

<li><a href="Giallo" title="Giallo">Giallo</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_giallo_films" title="List of giallo films">List of films</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_holiday_horror_films" title="List of holiday horror films">Holiday</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_horror" title="Japanese horror">Japanese horror</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_horror" title="Korean horror">Korean horror</a></li>

<li><a href="Lovecraftian_horror" title="Lovecraftian horror">Lovecraftian</a></li>

<li><a href="Melodrama_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Melodrama film">Melodrama</a>

<ul><li><a href="Korean_melodrama" title="Korean melodrama">Korean</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_natural_horror_films" title="List of natural horror films">Natural</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Extremity" class="mw-redirect" title="New Extremity">New French Extremity</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_in_horror_films" title="Gender in horror films">Psycho-biddy</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_horror" title="Psychological horror">Psychological</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_science_fiction_horror_films" title="List of science fiction horror films">Science fiction</a></li>

<li><a href="Slasher_film" title="Slasher film">Slasher</a></li>

<li><a href="Splatter_film" title="Splatter film">Splatter</a></li>

<li><a href="Satanic_film" title="Satanic film">Satanic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Maximalist_film" title="Maximalist film">Maximalist film</a></li>

<li><a href="Minimalist_film" title="Minimalist film">Minimalist film</a></li>

<li><a href="Mumblecore" title="Mumblecore">Mumblecore</a></li>

<li><a href="Musical_film" title="Musical film">Musical</a>

<ul><li><a href="Arthouse_musical" title="Arthouse musical">Arthouse</a></li>

<li><a href="Backstage_musical" title="Backstage musical">Backstage</a></li>

<li><a href="Jukebox_musical" title="Jukebox musical">Jukebox</a></li>

<li><a href="Musicarello" title="Musicarello">Musicarello</a></li>

<li><a href="Operetta_film" title="Operetta film">Operetta</a></li>

<li><a href="Sceneggiata" title="Sceneggiata">Sceneggiata</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mystery_film" title="Mystery film">Mystery</a>

<ul><li><a href="Detective_fiction" title="Detective fiction">Detective</a>

<ul><li><a href="Occult_detective_fiction" title="Occult detective fiction">Occult detective</a></li>

<li><a href="Whodunit" title="Whodunit">Whodunit</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Giallo" title="Giallo">Giallo</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Crossover_fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Crossover fiction">Crossover</a></li>

<li><a href="Pornographic_film" title="Pornographic film">Pornographic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Hardcore_pornography" title="Hardcore pornography">Hardcore pornography</a></li>

<li><a href="Softcore_pornography" title="Softcore pornography">Softcore pornography</a></li>

<li>(<a href="Malayalam_softcore_pornography" title="Malayalam softcore pornography">Malayalam</a>)</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Propaganda_film" title="Propaganda film">Propaganda</a></li>

<li><a href="Reality_film" title="Reality film">Reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Romance_film" title="Romance film">Romantic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Romantic_comedy" title="Romantic comedy">Comedy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bromantic_comedy" title="Bromantic comedy">Bromantic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Romantic_fantasy" title="Romantic fantasy">Fantasy</a></li>

<li><a href="Gothic_romance_film" title="Gothic romance film">Gothic</a></li>

<li><a href="Paranormal_romance" title="Paranormal romance">Paranormal</a></li>

<li><a href="Romantic_thriller" title="Romantic thriller">Thriller</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Science_fiction_film" title="Science fiction film">Science fiction</a>

<li><a href="Science_fiction_comedy" title="Science fiction comedy">Comedy</a></li>

<li><a href="Fantastique" title="Fantastique">Fantastique</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_fantasy" title="Science fantasy">Fantasy</a></li>

<li><a href="Gothic_science_fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic science fiction">Gothic</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_science_fiction_horror_films" title="List of science fiction horror films">Horror</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_science_fiction" title="Military science fiction">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_opera" title="Space opera">Space opera</a></li>

<li><a href="Steampunk" title="Steampunk">Steampunk</a></li>

<li><a href="Tokusatsu" title="Tokusatsu">Tokusatsu</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Western" title="Space Western">Western</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Slice_of_life" title="Slice of life">Slice of life</a>

<ul><li><a href="Iyashikei" title="Iyashikei">Iyashikei</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Slow_cinema" title="Slow cinema">Slow cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Survival_film" title="Survival film">Survival</a></li>

<li><a href="Thriller_film" title="Thriller film">Thriller</a>

<ul><li><a href="Comedy_thriller" title="Comedy thriller">Comedy</a></li>

<li><a href="Erotic_thriller" title="Erotic thriller">Erotic</a></li>

<li><a href="Financial_thriller" title="Financial thriller">Financial</a></li>

<li><a href="Giallo" title="Giallo">Giallo</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_thriller" title="Legal thriller">Legal</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Extremity" class="mw-redirect" title="New Extremity">New French Extremity</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_thriller" title="Political thriller">Political</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_thriller" title="Psychological thriller">Psychological</a></li>

<li><a href="Romantic_thriller" title="Romantic thriller">Romantic</a></li>

<li><a href="Techno-thriller" title="Techno-thriller">Techno</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Transgressive_art" title="Transgressive art">Transgressive</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cinema_of_Transgression" title="Cinema of Transgression">Cinema of Transgression</a></li>

<li><a href="Extreme_cinema" title="Extreme cinema">Extreme cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Extremity" class="mw-redirect" title="New Extremity">New French Extremity</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Trick_film" title="Trick film">Trick</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By theme</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_films_about_animals" title="List of films about animals">Animals</a></li>

<li><a href="Beach_party_film" title="Beach party film">Beach party</a></li>

<li><a href="Buddy_film" title="Buddy film">Buddy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Buddy_cop" title="Buddy cop">Buddy cop</a></li>

<li><a href="Female_buddy_film" title="Female buddy film">Female</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cabrito_western" title="Cabrito western">Cabrito</a></li>

<li><a href="Cannibal_film" title="Cannibal film">Cannibal</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Chicano_films" title="List of Chicano films">Chicano</a></li>

<li><a href="Colonial_cinema" title="Colonial cinema">Colonial</a></li>

<li><a href="Coming-of-age_story" title="Coming-of-age story">Coming-of-age</a></li>

<li><a href="Concert_film" title="Concert film">Concert</a></li>

<li><a href="Crime_film" title="Crime film">Crime</a>

<ul><li><a href="Detective_fiction" title="Detective fiction">Detective</a></li>

<li><a href="Gangster_film" title="Gangster film">Gangster</a></li>

<li><a href="Gentleman_thief" title="Gentleman thief">Gentleman thief</a></li>

<li><a href="Gokud%C5%8D" title="Gokudō">Gokudō</a></li>

<li><a href="Heist_film" title="Heist film">Heist</a></li>

<li><a href="Heroic_bloodshed" title="Heroic bloodshed">Heroic bloodshed</a></li>

<li><a href="Mafia_film" title="Mafia film">Mafia</a></li>

<li><a href="Mafia_comedy_film" title="Mafia comedy film">Mafia comedy</a></li>

<li><a href="Mumbai_underworld_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Mumbai underworld film">Mumbai underworld</a></li>

<li><a href="Poliziotteschi" title="Poliziotteschi">Poliziotteschi</a></li>

<li><a href="Yakuza_film" title="Yakuza film">Yakuza</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cute_Girls_Doing_Cute_Things" title="Cute Girls Doing Cute Things">Cute Girls Doing Cute Things</a></li>

<li><a href="Dance_in_film" title="Dance in film">Dance</a></li>

<li><a href="Disaster_film" title="Disaster film">Disaster</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_apocalyptic_films" title="List of apocalyptic films">Apocalyptic</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Psychedelic_film" title="Psychedelic film">Psychedelic</a></li>

<li><a href="Stoner_film" title="Stoner film">Stoner</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_dystopian_films" title="List of dystopian films">Dystopian</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecchi" title="Ecchi">Ecchi</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnographic_film" title="Ethnographic film">Ethnographic</a></li>

<li><a href="Exploitation_film" title="Exploitation film">Exploitation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Blaxploitation" title="Blaxploitation">Blaxploitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Mexploitation" title="Mexploitation">Mexploitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Turksploitation" title="Turksploitation">Turksploitation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="List_of_films_featuring_extraterrestrials" title="List of films featuring extraterrestrials">Extraterrestrial</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_films_about_food_and_drink" title="List of films about food and drink">Food and drink</a></li>

<li><a href="Gendai-geki" title="Gendai-geki">Gendai-geki</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_ghost_films" title="List of ghost films">Ghost</a></li>

<li><a href="Goona-goona_epic" title="Goona-goona epic">Goona-goona epic</a></li>

<li><a href="Gothic_film" title="Gothic film">Gothic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gothic_romance_film" title="Gothic romance film">Romance</a></li>

<li><a href="Gothic_science_fiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic science fiction">Space</a></li>

<li><a href="Suburban_Gothic" title="Suburban Gothic">Suburban</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Girls_with_guns" title="Girls with guns">Girls with guns</a></li>

<li><a href="Harem_(genre)" title="Harem (genre)">Harem</a></li>

<li><a href="Hentai" title="Hentai">Hentai</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lolicon" title="Lolicon">Lolicon</a></li>

<li><a href="Shotacon" title="Shotacon">Shotacon</a></li>

<li><a href="Tentacle_erotica" title="Tentacle erotica">Tentacle erotica</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Heimatfilm" title="Heimatfilm">Homeland</a></li>

<li><a href="Isekai" title="Isekai">Isekai</a></li>

<li><a href="Jidaigeki" title="Jidaigeki">Jidaigeki</a>

<ul><li><a href="Samurai_cinema" title="Samurai cinema">Samurai</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Gentleman_thief" title="Gentleman thief">Kaitō</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_LGBTQ-related_films" title="List of LGBTQ-related films">LGBTQ</a>

<li><a href="Luchador_films" title="Luchador films">Luchador</a></li>

<li><a href="Magical_girl" title="Magical girl">Magical girl</a></li>

<li><a href="Martial_arts_film" title="Martial arts film">Martial arts</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bruceploitation" title="Bruceploitation">Bruceploitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Chopsocky" title="Chopsocky">Chopsocky</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_ninja_films" title="List of ninja films">Ninja</a></li>

<li><a href="Wuxia" title="Wuxia">Wuxia</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mecha" title="Mecha">Mecha</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mecha_anime_and_manga" title="Mecha anime and manga">Anime</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Monster_movie" title="Monster movie">Monster</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_films_featuring_giant_monsters" title="List of films featuring giant monsters">Giant monster</a></li>

<li><a href="Kaiju" title="Kaiju">Kaiju</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_mummy_films" title="List of mummy films">Mummy</a></li>

<li><a href="Vampire_film" title="Vampire film">Vampire</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_zombie_films" title="List of zombie films">Zombie</a>

<ul><li><a href="Zombie_comedy" title="Zombie comedy">Zombie comedy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mountain_film" title="Mountain film">Mountain</a></li>

<li><a href="Cinema_da_Boca_do_Lixo" title="Cinema da Boca do Lixo">Mouth of Garbage</a></li>

<li><a href="Muslim_social" title="Muslim social">Muslim social</a></li>

<li><a href="Nature_documentary" title="Nature documentary">Nature</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_environmental_films" title="List of environmental films">Environmental issues</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Opera_film" title="Opera film">Opera</a></li>

<li><a href="Outlaw_biker_film" title="Outlaw biker film">Outlaw biker</a></li>

<li><a href="Ozploitation" title="Ozploitation">Ozploitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Partisan_film" title="Partisan film">Partisan film</a></li>

<li><a href="Prison_film" title="Prison film">Prison</a>

<ul><li><a href="Women_in_prison_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Women in prison film">Women</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Rape_and_revenge_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Rape and revenge film">Rape and revenge</a></li>

<li><a href="Rubble_film" title="Rubble film">Rubble</a></li>

<li><a href="Rumberas_film" title="Rumberas film">Rumberas</a></li>

<li><a href="Sageuk" title="Sageuk">Sageuk</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexploitation_film" title="Sexploitation film">Sexploitation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bavarian_porn" title="Bavarian porn">Bavarian porn</a></li>

<li><a href="Commedia_sexy_all'italiana" title="Commedia sexy all'italiana">Commedia sexy all'italiana</a></li>

<li><a href="Mexican_sex_comedy" title="Mexican sex comedy">Mexican sex comedy</a></li>

<li><a href="Nazi_exploitation" title="Nazi exploitation">Nazi exploitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Pornochanchada" title="Pornochanchada">Pornochanchada</a></li>

<li><a href="Nunsploitation" title="Nunsploitation">Nunsploitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_report_film" title="Sex report film">Sex report</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Shoshimin-eiga" title="Shoshimin-eiga">Shoshimin-eiga</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">Slavery</a></li>

<li><a href="Slice_of_life" title="Slice of life">Slice of life</a></li>

<li><a href="Snuff_film" title="Snuff film">Snuff</a></li>

<li><a href="South_Seas_genre" title="South Seas genre">South Seas</a></li>

<li><a href="Sports_film" title="Sports film">Sports</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Eurospy_film" title="Eurospy film">Eurospy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Superhero_film" title="Superhero film">Superhero</a></li>

<li><a href="Surf_film" title="Surf film">Surfing</a></li>

<li><a href="Swashbuckler_film" title="Swashbuckler film">Swashbuckler</a></li>

<li><a href="Sword-and-sandal" title="Sword-and-sandal">Sword-and-sandal</a></li>

<li><a href="Sword_and_sorcery" title="Sword and sorcery">Sword and sorcery</a></li>

<li><a href="Travel_documentary" title="Travel documentary">Travel</a>

<ul><li><a href="Imaginary_voyage" title="Imaginary voyage">imaginary voyage</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Trial_film" title="Trial film">Trial</a></li>

<li><a href="Vigilante_film" title="Vigilante film">Vigilante</a></li>

<li><a href="Submarine_films" title="Submarine films">Submarine</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Western_film" title="Western film">Western</a>

<li><a href="Contemporary_Western" title="Contemporary Western">Contemporary Western</a></li>

<li><a href="Dacoit_Western" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacoit Western">Dacoit Western</a></li>

<li><a href="Fantasy_Western" class="mw-redirect" title="Fantasy Western">Fantasy</a></li>

<li><a href="Florida_Western" title="Florida Western">Florida</a></li>

<li><a href="Horror_Western" title="Horror Western">Horror</a></li>

<li><a href="Northern_(genre)" title="Northern (genre)">Northern</a></li>

<li><a href="Ostern" title="Ostern">Ostern</a></li>

<li><a href="Revisionist_Western" title="Revisionist Western">Revisionist</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_fiction_Western" title="Science fiction Western">Science fiction</a></li>

<li><a href="Singing_cowboy" title="Singing cowboy">Singing cowboy</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Western" title="Space Western">Space</a></li>

<li><a href="Spaghetti_Western" title="Spaghetti Western">Spaghetti</a></li>

<li><a href="Weird_West" title="Weird West">Weird Western</a></li>

<li><a href="Zapata_Western" class="mw-redirect" title="Zapata Western">Zapata Western</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By movement or period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Absolute_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Absolute film">Absolute</a></li>

<li><a href="American_eccentric_cinema" title="American eccentric cinema">American eccentric cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Australian_New_Wave" title="Australian New Wave">Australian New Wave</a></li>

<li><a href="Auteur" title="Auteur">Auteur films</a></li>

<li><a href="Berlin_School_(filmmaking)" title="Berlin School (filmmaking)">Berlin School</a></li>

<li><a href="Bourekas_film" title="Bourekas film">Bourekas</a></li>

<li><a href="Brighton_School_(filmmaking)" title="Brighton School (filmmaking)">Brighton School</a></li>

<li><a href="British_New_Wave" title="British New Wave">British New Wave</a>

<ul><li><a href="Kitchen_sink_realism" title="Kitchen sink realism">Kitchen sink realism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Budapest_school" title="Budapest school">Budapest school</a></li>

<li><a href="Calligrafismo" title="Calligrafismo">Calligrafismo</a></li>

<li><a href="Cannibal_film" title="Cannibal film">Cannibal boom</a></li>

<li><a href="Cin%C3%A9ma_du_look" title="Cinéma du look">Cinéma du look</a></li>

<li><a href="Cinema_Novo" title="Cinema Novo">Cinema Novo</a></li>

<li><a href="Cinema_of_moral_anxiety" title="Cinema of moral anxiety">Cinema of Moral Anxiety</a></li>

<li><a href="Cinema_of_Transgression" title="Cinema of Transgression">Cinema of Transgression</a></li>

<li><a href="Cin%C3%A9ma_pur" class="mw-redirect" title="Cinéma pur">Cinéma pur</a></li>

<li><a href="Commedia_all'italiana" title="Commedia all'italiana">Commedia all'italiana</a></li>

<li><a href="Czechoslovak_New_Wave" title="Czechoslovak New Wave">Czechoslovak New Wave</a></li>

<li><a href="Documentary_Film_Movement" title="Documentary Film Movement">Documentary Film Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Dogme_95" title="Dogme 95">Dogme 95</a></li>

<li><a href="Erra_Cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="Erra Cinema">Erra Cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="European_art_cinema" title="European art cinema">European art cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_Cinema" title="Free Cinema">Free Cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="French_impressionist_cinema" title="French impressionist cinema">French Impressionist</a></li>

<li><a href="French_New_Wave" title="French New Wave">French New Wave</a></li>

<li><a href="German_expressionist_cinema" title="German expressionist cinema">German Expressionist</a></li>

<li><a href="German_underground_horror" title="German underground horror">German underground horror</a></li>

<li><a href="Golden_Age_of_Argentine_cinema" title="Golden Age of Argentine cinema">Golden Age of Argentine cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Golden_Age_of_Mexican_Cinema" title="Golden Age of Mexican Cinema">Golden Age of Mexican Cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Golden_Age_of_Nigerian_Cinema" title="Golden Age of Nigerian Cinema">Golden Age of Nigerian Cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Grupo_Cine_Liberaci%C3%B3n" title="Grupo Cine Liberación">Grupo Cine Liberación</a></li>

<li><a href="Heimatfilm" title="Heimatfilm">Heimatfilm</a></li>

<li><a href="Hollywood_on_the_Tiber" title="Hollywood on the Tiber">Hollywood on the Tiber</a></li>

<li><a href="Indiewood" title="Indiewood">Indiewood</a></li>

<li><a href="Iranian_New_Wave" title="Iranian New Wave">Iranian New Wave</a></li>

<li><a href="Italian_futurism_in_cinema" title="Italian futurism in cinema">Italian futurist</a></li>

<li><a href="Italian_neorealism" title="Italian neorealism">Italian neorealist</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_New_Wave" title="Japanese New Wave">Japanese New Wave</a></li>

<li><a href="Kammerspielfilm" title="Kammerspielfilm">Kammerspielfilm</a></li>

<li><a href="L.A._Rebellion" title="L.A. Rebellion">L.A. Rebellion</a></li>

<li><a href="Lettrism" title="Lettrism">Lettrist</a></li>

<li><a href="Modernist_film" title="Modernist film">Modernist film</a></li>

<li><a href="Mumblecore" title="Mumblecore">Mumblecore</a></li>

<li><a href="Neorealism_(art)" title="Neorealism (art)">Neorealist</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Extremity" class="mw-redirect" title="New Extremity">New French Extremity</a></li>

<li><a href="New_German_Cinema" title="New German Cinema">New German</a></li>

<li><a href="New_generation_(Malayalam_film_movement)" title="New generation (Malayalam film movement)">New generation</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Hollywood" title="New Hollywood">New Hollywood</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Nigerian_Cinema" title="New Nigerian Cinema">New Nollywood</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Objectivity_(filmmaking)" title="New Objectivity (filmmaking)">New Objectivity</a></li>

<li><a href="New_queer_cinema" title="New queer cinema">New Queer</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuevo_Cine_Mexicano" title="Nuevo Cine Mexicano">Nuevo Cine Mexicano</a></li>

<li><a href="Pan-Indian_film" title="Pan-Indian film">Pan-Indian film</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_cinema" title="Parallel cinema">Parallel cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Filmfarsi" title="Filmfarsi">Persian Film</a></li>

<li><a href="Philippine_New_Wave" title="Philippine New Wave">Philippine New Wave</a></li>

<li><a href="Poetic_realism" title="Poetic realism">Poetic realist</a></li>

<li><a href="Polish_Film_School" title="Polish Film School">Polish Film School</a></li>

<li><a href="Poliziotteschi" title="Poliziotteschi">Poliziotteschi</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Prague_film_school" title="The Prague film school">The Prague film school</a></li>

<li><a href="Prussian_film" title="Prussian film">Prussian film</a></li>

<li><a href="Pure_Film_Movement" title="Pure Film Movement">Pure Film Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Remodernist_film" title="Remodernist film">Remodernist</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanian_New_Wave" title="Romanian New Wave">Romanian New Wave</a></li>

<li><a href="Slow_cinema" title="Slow cinema">Slow cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Spaghetti_Western" title="Spaghetti Western">Spaghetti Western</a></li>

<li><a href="Socialist_realism" title="Socialist realism">Socialist realist</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_realism" title="Social realism">Social realist</a>

<ul><li><a href="Kitchen_sink_realism" title="Kitchen sink realism">Kitchen sink realism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_parallel_cinema" title="Soviet parallel cinema">Soviet parallel</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_film" title="Structural film">Structural</a></li>

<li><a href="Surrealist_cinema" title="Surrealist cinema">Surrealist</a></li>

<li><a href="Sword-and-sandal" title="Sword-and-sandal">Sword-and-sandal</a></li>

<li><a href="Taiwan_New_Cinema" title="Taiwan New Cinema">Taiwan New Cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Telefoni_Bianchi" title="Telefoni Bianchi">Telefoni Bianchi</a></li>

<li><a href="Third_Cinema" title="Third Cinema">Third Cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Toronto_New_Wave" title="Toronto New Wave">Toronto New Wave</a></li>

<li><a href="Vulgar_auteurism" title="Vulgar auteurism">Vulgar auteurism</a></li>

<li><a href="Yugoslav_Black_Wave" title="Yugoslav Black Wave">Yugoslav Black Wave</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By demographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pornographic_film" title="Pornographic film">Adult</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_film" title="Black film">Black</a></li>

<li><a href="Children's_film" title="Children's film">Children and family</a>

<ul><li><a href="Children's_anime_and_manga" title="Children's anime and manga">Anime</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Men

<ul><li><a href="Seinen_manga" title="Seinen manga">Seinen</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Sh%C5%8Dnen_manga" title="Shōnen manga">Shōnen</a></li>

<li><a href="Sh%C5%8Djo_manga" title="Shōjo manga">Shōjo</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Woman's_film" title="Woman's film">Women</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chick_flick" title="Chick flick">Chick flick</a></li>

<li><a href="Josei_manga" title="Josei manga">Josei</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By format, technique, approach, or production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Actuality_film" title="Actuality film">Actuality</a></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Anime" title="Anime">Anime</a></li>

<li><a href="Animated_cartoon" class="mw-redirect" title="Animated cartoon">Cartoon</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Computer</a></li>

<li><a href="Stop_motion" title="Stop motion">Stop-motion</a></li>

<li><a href="Traditional_animation" title="Traditional animation">Traditional</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Anthology_film" title="Anthology film">Anthology</a></li>

<li><a href="B_movie" title="B movie">B movie</a></li>

<li><a href="Behind-the-scenes" title="Behind-the-scenes">Behind-the-scenes</a></li>

<li><a href="Black-and-white" class="mw-redirect" title="Black-and-white">Black-and-white</a></li>

<li><a href="Blockbuster_(entertainment)" title="Blockbuster (entertainment)">Blockbuster</a></li>

<li><a href="Cin%C3%A9ma_v%C3%A9rit%C3%A9" title="Cinéma vérité">Cinéma vérité</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_Hollywood_cinema" title="Classical Hollywood cinema">Classical Hollywood cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Collage_film" title="Collage film">Collage</a></li>

<li><a href="Color_motion_picture_film" title="Color motion picture film">Color</a></li>

<li><a href="Compilation_film" title="Compilation film">Compilation</a></li>

<li><a href="Composite_film" title="Composite film">Composite</a></li>

<li><a href="Screenlife" title="Screenlife">Computer screen</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Midnight_movie" title="Midnight movie">midnight movie</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Database_cinema" title="Database cinema">Database cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Direct-to-video" title="Direct-to-video">Direct-to-video</a>

<li><a href="Docufiction" title="Docufiction">Docufiction</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnofiction" title="Ethnofiction">Ethnofiction</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_film" title="Experimental film">Experimental</a>

<ul><li><a href="Abstract_animation" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract animation">Abstract</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Feature_film" title="Feature film">Feature</a></li>

<li><a href="Featurette" title="Featurette">Featurette</a></li>

<li><a href="Found_footage_(film_technique)" title="Found footage (film technique)">Found footage</a></li>

<li><a href="High_concept" title="High concept">High concept</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperlink_cinema" title="Hyperlink cinema">Hyperlink cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Independent_film" title="Independent film">Independent</a>

<ul><li><a href="Guerrilla_filmmaking" title="Guerrilla filmmaking">Guerrilla filmmaking</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_American_independent_films" title="List of American independent films">List of American independent films</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Interstitial_art" title="Interstitial art">Interstitial art</a></li>

<li><a href="Live_action" title="Live action">Live action</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_films_with_live_action_and_animation" title="List of films with live action and animation">animation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Low-budget_film" title="Low-budget film">Low-budget</a></li>

<li><a href="Major_film_studios" title="Major film studios">Major film studios</a></li>

<li><a href="Masala_film" title="Masala film">Masala</a></li>

<li><a href="Maximalist_film" title="Maximalist film">Maximalist film</a></li>

<li><a href="Message_picture" title="Message picture">Message picture</a></li>

<li><a href="Minimalist_film" title="Minimalist film">Minimalist film</a></li>

<li><a href="Mockbuster" title="Mockbuster">Mockbuster</a></li>

<li><a href="Modernist_film" title="Modernist film">Modernist film</a></li>

<li><a href="Musical_short" title="Musical short">Musical short</a></li>

<li><a href="Mythopoeia" title="Mythopoeia">Mythopoeia</a></li>

<li><a href="Neorealism_(art)" title="Neorealism (art)">Neorealist</a></li>

<li><a href="No-budget_film" title="No-budget film">No-budget</a></li>

<li><a href="Paracinema" title="Paracinema">Paracinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Participatory_cinema" title="Participatory cinema">Participatory</a></li>

<li><a href="Poetry_film" title="Poetry film">Poetry</a></li>

<li><a href="Postmodernist_film" title="Postmodernist film">Postmodernist</a></li>

<li><a href="Reverse_motion" title="Reverse motion">Reverse motion</a></li>

<li><a href="Satire_(film_and_television)" title="Satire (film and television)">Satire</a></li>

<li><a href="Sceneggiata" title="Sceneggiata">Sceneggiata</a></li>

<li><a href="Semidocumentary" title="Semidocumentary">Semidocumentary</a></li>

<li><a href="Serial_film" title="Serial film">Serial</a></li>

<li><a href="Shinpa" title="Shinpa">Shinpa</a></li>

<li><a href="Short_film" title="Short film">Short</a></li>

<li><a href="Silent_film" title="Silent film">Silent</a></li>

<li><a href="Slow_cinema" title="Slow cinema">Slow cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Socialist_realism" title="Socialist realism">Socialist realist</a></li>

<li><a href="Sound_film" title="Sound film">Sound</a></li>

<li><a href="Television_film" title="Television film">Television film</a></li>

<li><a href="Underground_film" title="Underground film">Underground</a></li>

<li><a href="Video_nasty" title="Video nasty">Video nasty</a></li>

<li><a href="Vulgar_auteurism" title="Vulgar auteurism">Vulgar auteurism</a></li>

<li><a href="Z_movie" title="Z movie">Z movie</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11425#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1073" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11425#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1073" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/809628">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/7703314-0">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85005291">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00561560">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph234794&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000133120&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-08-08" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Animation&oldid=1304829982">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>